Social Science (Part I) Chapter Notes
Chapter 1: Medieval India12
Mughal Rule
• The Mughal rule was established by Babur in 15262.
• Babur, the founder, was a descendant of the Turkish ruler Timur (paternally) and the Mongol king Genghis Khan (maternally)3.
• Mughals ruled India until 1857, with Delhi as their capital2.
• Important Mughal rulers were Babur (1526-1530), Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb (1658-1707)2.
• The empire was vast, extending into neighboring countries like Afghanistan3.
• The First Battle of Panipat in 1526, fought between Ibrahim Lodi and
Babur, secured Babur's victory and laid the foundation for the Mughal
rule in India4.
Emperor Akbar and Religious Tolerance
• Akbar was known as a great emperor who administered equal justice
without distinction of high-low castes, treating Hindu/Christian/Muslim
alike4.
• He built Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in his capital, Fatehpur
Sikri (1575), where scholars of various religions gathered for
discussions5.
• Akbar founded Din-i-Ilahi, a visionary religion based on the core idea
of sulh-i-kul (peace to all), promoting the welfare of human beings67.
• He abolished the religious tax called 'Jaziah'6.
• Prominent individuals who held high positions in his court included
Raja Todarmal, Raja Mansingh, Raja Bhagavandas, and Birbal6.
Mughal Administration and Socio-Economic Status
• Administrative Structure (Akbar’s regime): Mughal Kingdom → Suba → Sarkar → Pargana → Grama8.
• The Emperor was the sovereign authority, commander-in-chief, law-maker, and supreme judge8.
• Justice was administered locally by religious scholars (Qazi), with appeals possible directly to the emperor8.
• Mansabdari System: The military system implemented by Akbar9.
◦ Mansab was the title referring to the number of cavalry each officer had to maintain9.
◦ Mansabdars were allotted land and maintained their army by collecting
taxes from it, rather than receiving direct payment from the state9.
• Economy: Agricultural achievements underpinned economic progress10.
◦ Major crops included rice, wheat, barley, sugarcane, cotton, and oilseeds10.
◦ Irrigation relied on technology like the Persian wheel and canals11.
◦ Major export items were textiles, muslin, sugar, and rice11. Gujarat served as the gateway for foreign goods11.
Cultural Integration
• Mughal rule saw a blend of Indian and Persian cultures12.
• Architecture: Examples include the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, and Red Fort13.
• Language: Urdu originated from the fusion of Persian and Hindi1314.
• Music: Hindustani music developed as a result of this synthesis13.
• Dara Shukoh, son of Shah Jahan, translated the Hindu epic Mahabharata into Persian (known as Razm-Nama)12.
The Vijayanagara Rule
• The Vijayanagara Kingdom was the most prominent dynasty in South India during the medieval period15.
• Founded in 1336 CE by the brothers Harihara and Bukka16.
• The capital city, Vijayanagara (City of Victory), is popularly remembered as Hampi15.
• Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529) was the most famous ruler16. He was
known for his religious tolerance, allowing Christians, Jews, Moors, or
Heathens to live according to their creed17.
• Krishna Deva Raya promoted Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil literature and authored 'Amuktamalyada' and 'Jambavatikalyanam'18.
• Scholars known as 'Ashtadiggajas' were members of his court18.
Vijayanagara Administration and Culture
• Administrative Structure: Monarchy prevailed, and the country was
divided into mandalam (provinces), nadu (districts), sthala
(sub-districts), and grama (village)18.
• Amara-Nayaka System: Military commanders (Amara-Nayakas) were allotted
tax-collecting lands (Amara) and maintained soldiers for the King19.
• Economy: Agriculture was the main occupation20. Irrigation systems
included the Kamalapuram lake and the dam across the Tungabhadra
river20.
◦ The region was a major trading centre21. Foreign trade was encouraged, with the Portuguese and Arabs having a monopoly21.
◦ Local traders involved in horse trading were known as 'Kuthirachettis'21.
• Cultural Features: The Dravidian style of sculpture was dominant22.
Gigantic temple gates, called 'Gopurams,' were a hallmark of the
architecture22.
Chapter 2: Medieval India: Cultural Movements2324
Bhakti Movement
• Bhakti is defined as the total submission of one's life to God25.
• It emerged as a popular movement that attracted marginalized social
groups and questioned the conservative outlook and caste system
prevalent in medieval India2426.
Bhakti in South India (7th–12th centuries CE)
• Alvars (Devotees of Vishnu): Composed devotional songs, collected as
'Nalayira Divyaprabandham'2728. (Poets included Kulasekhara Alvar,
Andal)2829.
• Nayanars (Devotees of Shiva): Their compositions were titled 'Thirumuraikal'2728. (Poets included Karaikal Ammayar)28.
• Key Characteristics: Love and submission to God, deep devotion, use of
vernacular languages, and equal participation irrespective of
caste2627.
Propagators Across India
• Basavanna (12th Century, Kannada Desa): Philosopher and social
reformer who founded the Vira Shaiva movement based on freedom,
equality, and social justice30.
◦ Established Anubhava Mandapam, a spiritual forum led by Allama Prabhu
and Akka Mahadevi, where people of all castes and genders participated
in discussions3031.
◦ Questioned Brahminical supremacy and the authenticity of the Vedas32.
◦ Opposed child marriage and encouraged marriage after puberty and widow remarriage32.
• Kabir (15th Century, Northern India): Propagated his ideas through
hymns known as 'Dohas' in a language common people could understand3334.
◦ Stood for Hindu-Muslim unity and brotherhood34.
◦ Rejected caste system, untouchability, idol worship, and religious rituals34.
◦ Believed in a formless God and emphasized Bhakti as the means of salvation34.
• Guru Nanak (15th Century, Punjab): Attempted to harmonize the ideas of
different religions and spread the message of One God35.
◦ Rejected meaningless rituals, caste discrimination, and idolatry35.
◦ Emphasized 'Langar' (community kitchen) to promote equality and brotherhood35.
◦ His teachings led to the formation of Sikhism35. The holy book, 'Adi
Granth' (Guru Granth Sahib), contains ideas of monotheism and opposes
discrimination36.
Sufi Movement
• Sufism is an Islamic devotional movement that originated in Central Asia and reached India by the 12th century CE37.
• Sufis believed devotional singing was a way to approach God38. They
emphasized monotheism, fraternity, humanity, and devotion38.
• The Sufi master was called Pir (Sheikh), and followers were Murid39.
• Sufi residences were Khanqahs, which served as social centres39.
• Devotional songs called Qawwalis were sung in a chanting style called Sama39.
• Major sects (Silsilahs) that reached India were Chishti and Suhrawardi37.
• Prominent Sufi Masters included Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer) and Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi)14.
Influence and Growth of Vernacular Languages
• Bhakti-Sufi propagators used vernacular languages, leading to the
growth of regional languages like Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam,
etc.1440.
• Urdu emerged as a combination of Persian and Hindi14. Amir Khusru was a prominent Urdu writer14.
• The movements brought people together, reduced conflicts, and fostered
religious tolerance, communal harmony, and the values of equality and
pluralism in modern Indian society41.
Chapter 3: Constitution: Path and Guiding Light2342
Framing the Constitution
• The freedom struggle leaders ensured that the foundational values of
the national movement—freedom, equality, brotherhood, and religious
harmony—would form the basis of the Constitution43.
• Until January 26, 1950, India followed the Government of India Act, 193544.
• The Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946 based on the Cabinet Mission proposal45.
◦ First Meeting: December 9, 194646.
◦ Framing Period: 2 years, 11 months, 17 days46.
◦ Chairman (Elected): Dr. Rajendra Prasad46.
◦ Chairman of the Drafting Committee: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar46.
◦ The Constitution was adopted and signed on November 26, 1949 and came into force on January 26, 195046.
Key Features of the Constitution
• It is the largest written constitution in the world47.
• It is the fundamental law and supreme source of all laws in the nation48.
• Core Principles:
◦ Popular Sovereignty: All national powers originate from the people49.
◦ Rule of Law: All citizens are subject to law; no one is above the law4750.
◦ Universal Adult Franchise: Right to vote given to all who attain a particular age47.
◦ Federalism: Power is divided between the Centre and the States49.
◦ Single Citizenship: There is only one citizenship for the country50.
◦ Independent and Impartial Judiciary: Judicial system is independent of the legislature and executive49.
◦ It guarantees Fundamental Rights and outlines Fundamental Duties49.
Constitutional Amendments
• Changes are made to the Constitution as per changing social demands
(process known as Constitutional Amendment, governed by Article 368)51.
• The Supreme Court ruled (in the Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973) that
the basic structure of the Constitution should not be amended51.
• Key Amendments:
◦ 42nd Amendment (1976): Inserted the terms Socialism, Secularism, and
Integrity into the Preamble, often called the Mini Constitution5253.
◦ 44th Amendment (1978): Right to Property ceased to be a Fundamental Right52.
◦ 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992): Related to the Panchayati Raj and Municipal Corporation Acts54.
◦ 86th Amendment (2002): Made Education a Fundamental Right (Article
21(A)). Led to the Right to Education Act 2009, ensuring free and
compulsory education for children aged 6–145354.
Laws Related to Children
• The POCSO Act 2012 (Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act)
was enacted to implement guaranteed rights, incorporating child-friendly
measures without gender discrimination55.
• A child is defined as anyone under the age of 1855.
• Cases of sexual assault must be reported to the Special Juvenile Police Unit or local police (Section 19)55.
Chapter 4: From Injustice to Justice2356
Marginalisation and Injustice
• Injustice involves exclusion, denial of opportunities, and social discrimination56.
• Marginalisation is the process of willfully excluding groups from mainstream society57.
• Causes include natural or man-made disasters, intentional exclusion
based on caste, religion, tribe, or gender status, and denial of
education/employment57.
• Marginalized groups include women, transgenders, Dalits, tribals, minorities, refugees, and differently abled persons58.
Struggles Against Caste Marginalisation
• Mahatma Ayyankali recognized education as a tool for social
transformation and fought for equal opportunities for Dalits (e.g., the
Ooruttambalam struggle)5960.
• Other reformers who opposed marginalisation through modern education
include Sree Narayana Guru, Kuriakose Elias Chavara, and Ayya Vaikunta
Swamikal6061.
• Dalit is the term used for a community subjected to caste exploitation, popularized by Jyoti Rao Phule62.
• Jyoti Rao Phule (1827-1890) and Savitribai Phule (1831-1897)
established India’s first school for girls in Pune and educational
institutions for Dalits62.
• Periyar E. V. Ramasamy Naicker (1879-1973) founded the Self-Respect
Movement and stood against caste-based discrimination and Brahmin
dominance63.
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was the architect of the Constitution, who
tirelessly worked for the socio-political upliftment and legal
protection of Dalits64.
Tribal and Gender Marginalisation
• Tribal people are groups living in specific geographical areas with
their own knowledge systems, arts, and cultures, who were marginalized
after losing control over their natural habitats63.
• Anthropologists like Verrier Elwin and Dr. A. Aiyappan studied and worked for the preservation of tribal life and culture6566.
• Nanjiyamma from the Irula tribe won the 2020 National Film Award for best female singer66.
• Women historically faced discrimination in fields like art, education,
and work (e.g., Nilambur Ayisha’s challenges in theatre)6768.
• Social reformers like Pandita Ramabai worked for women’s rights and the welfare of widows69.
• Transgender persons are marginalized due to gender status mismatching their gender assigned at birth7071.
Differently Abled and Constitutional Protection
• The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, ensures
non-discrimination and equal social life for differently abled people72.
• The Constitution of India guarantees equality to all citizens (Article
14) and prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex,
and place of birth (Article 15)64.
• Resistance to marginalisation and the achievement of justice require the full participation of all sections of society73.
Chapter 5: Our Earth2374
Earth's Interior Structure
• The interior temperature reaches about 5500 degrees Celsius at the center74.
• The distance from the surface to the center is about 6371 kilometers74.
• Information about the interior is derived from scientific studies of volcanic eruptions, mines, and earthquake wave motion75.
• Layers of the Earth:
◦ Crust: Outermost, thin layer of solid rock. Continental crust (up to
70 km thick) is thicker than oceanic crust (average 5 km)76.
◦ Mantle: Layer below the crust, extending up to 2900 km76.
◦ Lithosphere: Comprises the crust and the upper part of the mantle (solid state)76.
◦ Asthenosphere: The molten part below the lithosphere (magma)76.
◦ Core: Made mainly of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe), hence known as NIFE77.
▪ Outer core is in a liquid state; inner core is in a solid state (at 5500°C)77.
Earth's Atmosphere
• The gaseous blanket covering the earth, formed over billions of years of cooling78.
• Major gases include Nitrogen (most abundant), Oxygen, and Carbon dioxide7879.
• Water Vapour: Condenses around fine dust particles (called Hygroscopic nuclei) to form clouds7980.
• The atmosphere sustains life by providing breathable air, causing
atmospheric phenomena, and protecting the earth from harmful sun
rays8182.
Atmospheric Layers
The atmosphere is classified into five layers based on temperature conditions83:
• Troposphere: The lowermost layer (average height 13 km)84.
◦ Contains most dust particles and water vapour84.
◦ All atmospheric phenomena (rain, clouds, wind) occur here84.
◦ Temperature decreases at a rate of 1°C per 165 meters (Normal Lapse Rate)84.
• Stratosphere: Extends up to 50 km85.
◦ Contains the Ozone Layer (altitude ~25 km), which protects life by blocking harmful ultraviolet rays85.
• Mesosphere: Extends from 50 km to 80 km86.
◦ Temperature drops to -100 degrees Celsius (lowest in the atmosphere)86.
◦ Most meteors entering the atmosphere burn down in this layer86.
• Thermosphere: Extends from 80 km to 400 km86.
◦ Temperature increases with altitude86.
◦ The lower part is the Ionosphere (80-400 km), where solar radiation
creates ions, enabling long-distance radio wave transmission87.
• Exosphere: Uppermost layer, above 400 km, where air molecules gradually dissolve into outer space87.
Chapter 6: Indian Subcontinent2388
Geographical Features
• A Subcontinent is a large continental area with diverse physiographic divisions and climates89.
• The Indian subcontinent is geographically separated from the rest of
Asia by the Pamir plateau (known as the "roof of the world")8990.
• Boundaries: Himalayas (North), Arakan ranges (East), Hindukush range (West), and the Indian Ocean (South)89.
• Countries: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, and Sri Lanka9192.
• Physiographic Divisions:
◦ Northern Mountain Ranges: Himalayas and Hindukush, containing high peaks91.
◦ North Indian Plain (Great Plains): Formed by alluvial deposits of the
Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra; characterized by fertile soil and high
population density9091.
◦ Peninsular Plateau: A roughly triangular plateau located south of the Great Plains9092.
◦ Thar Desert: Arid land stretching across northwest India and Pakistan92.
Climate and Monsoon
• The climate of the Indian subcontinent is generally known as 'monsoon
climate' (derived from the Arabic ‘mausim,’ meaning seasons)93.
• Southwesterly winds (May/June) from the Indian Ocean bring widespread rainfall94.
• Factors influencing climate include latitude, altitude, physiography, proximity to the ocean, and wind95.
• The Tropic of Cancer divides the subcontinent into temperate (North) and tropical (South) climate zones95.
• Rain Shadow Regions: Areas on the leeward side of mountains (e.g.,
Tamil Nadu, east of Western Ghats) that receive low rainfall because the
mountains obstruct moisture-laden winds (e.g., Kerala on the windward
side receives heavy rainfall)9697.
Cropping Seasons and Crops
• There are three cropping seasons in India98:
◦ Kharif: Coincides with the south-west monsoon; crops require high
temperature and abundant water (e.g., Paddy, cotton, jute)99.
◦ Rabi: Begins with winter (Oct–Nov); crops require moderate temperature/water (e.g., Wheat, pulses, mustard)99.
◦ Zaid: Short summer season after Rabi (e.g., Watermelon, cucumber)99.
• Classification of Crops:
◦ Food Crops: Cereals (rice, wheat) and Pulses (gram, toordal)100.
◦ Cash Crops: Grown commercially for industry (e.g., Sugar cane, cotton, jute)100.
Chapter 7: From food production to food security23101
Farming Methods
• Subsistence Farming: Farmers produce only what is required for their sustenance, using traditional tools102103.
• Mixed Farming: Simultaneous cultivation of multiple crops combined
with livestock rearing; benefits include lower cost and obtaining
manure/feed locally103104.
• Cultivation of Plantation Crops: Large-scale cultivation (e.g., tea,
coffee, rubber) promoted by Europeans for industrial raw materials104.
Characterized by long-term income and relatively low production cost104.
• Cultivation of Commercial Crops: Large-scale production for
commercial/industrial purposes, requiring high capital investment and
modern technology (e.g., Rubber, sugarcane)105.
Minerals and Industries
• Minerals: Metallic (e.g., Hematite, Bauxite) and non-metallic (e.g.,
Mica, Diamond, Silica) compounds found in the Earth’s crust106107. Fuel
minerals include Coal and Petroleum107.
• Mineral-based Industries: Utilize minerals as raw materials107. The
Iron and Steel industry is the largest, considered the Primary Industry
and the backbone of the industrial sector107.
Agricultural Reforms and Poverty
• Land Reforms: Implemented post-independence; surplus land (above a set
limit) was distributed to landless peasants, increasing agricultural
production108. Kerala was a model state108.
• Green Revolution: A programme that massively increased food grain
production using high-yielding seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and
scientific irrigation109.
◦ Known as the ‘Wheat Revolution’ because its results were first visible in wheat production109.
◦ Dr. M. S. Swaminathan (Father of the Indian Green Revolution) worked alongside Norman E. Borlaug109.
◦ Benefits included increased self-sufficiency and reduced black
marketing, but limitations included drastically reduced groundwater and
soil fertility due to overuse of inputs110111.
• Poverty: A condition where basic human needs (food, clothing, shelter, education, health) are inaccessible112.
• Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Developed by OPHI and UNDP to
measure poverty based on twelve indicators across three dimensions:
Health, Education, and Standard of Living (not just income)113114.
• Kudumbashree: A project launched on May 17, 1998, for poverty
alleviation and the economic upliftment of women, which has become a
model for other states115.
• Food Security: Ensuring all people have access to adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food at all times116.
Social Science (Part II) Chapter Notes
Chapter 8: Power to the People117118
Grama Sabhas and Local Governance
• The Grama Sabha (or Ward Sabha in cities) is a platform for public
participation in discussions and decision-making regarding local
development119120.
• It includes all individuals enlisted in the voters’ list of each ward120.
• It is convened at least once in three months120.
• The Panchayat President presides, and the Ward Member is the convenor120121.
• The Pookkottumala village demonstrates successful sustainable
development through people's participation in local self-government122.
Decentralisation of Power
• Gandhiji's Dream (Village Swaraj): Envisioned villages as complete
republics, self-sufficient in meeting vital needs123124. He believed
decentralization was key to realizing this concept124.
• Decentralisation of Power: The legal transfer of power to the people
to take decisions and execute them in political or administrative
systems125.
◦ Features: Importance to regional development, increased participation
of common people, local economic development, and providing leadership
experience to women and the marginalized126.
• Centralisation of Power: Power to make decisions is concentrated in
the hands of a few, limiting common people's involvement125.
Evolution of Decentralisation in India
• The ancient Panchayat system was revived by Lord Rippon's reforms (1882)126.
• Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957): Recommended a three-tier panchayat
system (Grama Panchayat, Panchayat Committee, District Parishad)127.
• The Panchayati Raj system was first inaugurated in Nagaur district, Rajasthan (October 2, 1959)128.
• 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992): Introduced the Panchayati Raj Act129.
◦ Mandated the three-tier system (Grama, Block, District Panchayat)130.
◦ Ensured reservation for SC/ST and Women, and five-year tenure131.
• 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992): Introduced the Nagarpalika Act (Urban Local Self Government)129130.
People’s Planning and Revenue in Kerala
• People’s Planning (Janakeeyasuthranam): Decentralisation process
introduced in Kerala in 1996, giving local self-government more power,
funds, and responsibilities132.
• Women's Reservation: Elevated to 50% in local self-government bodies as per the 2005 Panchayati Raj Act amendment132133.
• Sources of Revenue for Local Self-Governments: Grants from
State/Central governments, various taxes (building tax, professional
tax, entertainment tax), fees from permits/registration, user fees, and
fines134....
Chapter 9: Maps and Technology to Know the Earth117137
Maps and Classification
• Maps are representations of the earth or a portion of it on a plain surface138.
• The history of mapmaking dates back to 2500 BCE (a clay plate map from
Mesopotamia)139. Greek geographer Ptolemy's work was highly
influential139.
• Classification by Function:
◦ Physical Maps: Depict natural features (e.g., topography, rivers, climate)140.
◦ Cultural Maps: Depict man-made features (e.g., political divisions, roads, population)140.
◦ Thematic Maps: Focus on a specific topic or theme (e.g., Soil Map)141.
• Classification by Scale:
◦ Large-Scale Maps: Depict more information about a small area (e.g., village map)142.
◦ Small-Scale Maps: Depict less information of a large area (e.g., World Map)142.
Map Reading Components and Scale
• Factors assisting map reading: Title, Scale, Direction, Latitude, Longitude, Conventional colours/symbols, and Index143.
• Scale: The ratio between actual distance on earth and distance marked on the map144145.
◦ Statement of Scale: Expressed simply (e.g., 1 cm = 1 km)146.
◦ Representative Fraction (RF): Expressed as a ratio (e.g., 1:100000), using the same unit for map and ground distance147.
• Conventional Colours/Signs: Internationally accepted symbols are used
so people from any country can read the map without confusion148. (e.g.,
Blue for waterbodies, Red for roads/habitats, Green for natural
vegetation)149.
Innovative Geographical Technology
• Remote Sensing: Collecting information from a distance without
physical contact, using sensors fixed on platforms like balloons,
aeroplanes, or artificial satellites150151.
◦ Classification: Terrestrial, Aerial, and Satellite Remote Sensing152.
• Geographic Information System (GIS): A software-based computer
technology used to collect, store, analyse, and produce geographical
data (maps, graphs) from various sources153. Benefits fields such as
disaster management, planning, and resource management154.
• Global Positioning System (GPS): Technology using artificial
satellites to identify the precise latitudinal, longitudinal location,
and altitude of an object, especially moving objects like aeroplanes and
ships154.
• Bhuvan: A map-making system developed by ISRO in India, utilizing GIS and remote sensing155.
Chapter 10: Budget: The True Record of Development117156
Family and Public Finance
• Family Budget: A financial plan based on expected income and
expenditure for a period (monthly/annual), helping families maintain
financial safety157.
• Public Expenditure: Government spending on developmental and non-developmental activities158.
◦ Developmental Expenditure (Production Costs): Directly contributes to
economic/social development (e.g., construction of roads, starting
enterprises)158.
◦ Non-Developmental Expenditure: Regular expenses for public
services/national interest (e.g., defence, interest, pension,
subsidies)159.
• Public Revenue: Wealth collected by the government from various sources160.
◦ Tax Revenue: Includes Direct Tax (burden borne by the taxpayer, e.g.,
Income tax) and Indirect Tax (burden shifts, e.g., Sales tax)161.
◦ Goods and Services Tax (GST): A unified indirect tax implemented July 1, 2017 (101st amendment)162.
Budget and Fiscal Policy
• Budget: A government financial document detailing expected income and
expenditure for a financial year (April 1st to March 31st)163.
◦ The Union budget is the annual financial audit (Article 112 of the Constitution)163.
◦ Types: Balanced, Surplus (income > expenditure), and Deficit (income < expenditure)163.
• Public Debt: Loans availed by the government (internal/domestic debt
from within the country; external/foreign debt from abroad or
international organizations)164165.
• Fiscal Policy: Comprehensive government policy concerning public
revenue, expenditure, and debt, implemented through the budget165.
Objectives include accelerating economic growth and eliminating
inequality in revenue distribution166.
Chapter 11: Against Discrimination117167
Colonisation and Conflict in South Africa
• South Africa was initially inhabited by tribal people (San and Xhosa)168.
• Colonized first by the Dutch (Cape Town major colony), then the British arrived in the 18th century168169.
• Boers (descendants of Dutch, French, Germans—meaning 'farmer')
undertook the Great Trek to the interior to escape restrictive British
policies169170.
• Boer Wars: Triggered by the discovery of gold and diamond mines171.
Resulted in the formation of the Union of South Africa under British
control, denying fundamental rights to Black people172.
• Mahatma Gandhi arrived in 1893 and used South Africa as his "Political
Laboratory," experimenting with satyagraha, non-cooperation, and civil
disobedience against racial discrimination173174.
Apartheid and Resistance
• The African National Congress (ANC) was formed to protect the rights
of the people against oppressive laws introduced by the White-led South
African Party175.
• Apartheid: The social order legally enforced by the National Party
(1948) that discriminated racially and economically, reserving high
status for Whites176.
◦ Laws included the Native Pass Law Act (requiring passes for Black
movement) and the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (segregating
public places)177178.
• Nelson Mandela (elected first Black President in 1994) tirelessly led
the fight against apartheid179180. He founded the ANC Youth League176.
• The African Year (1960) saw an armed rebellion start after the massacre at Sharp Velle181.
• Robben Island served as a prison for arrested African leaders, where Mandela was held for 18 years181.
• International pressure and widespread internal riots forced the government to abolish the Apartheid Policy in 1991180182.
Chapter 12: The Foundation Stones of History117183
History and Local History
• History is the scientific recording of the past based on evidence184.
• Local History is a minute and comprehensive documentation of a small
geographical region, person, or event184185. It democratizes history by
including overlooked communities186.
Sources of History (General)
• Sources include anything providing valid information about a period187.
• Archaeological Sources: Provide evidence about past life188.
◦ Lithic Monuments (Megaliths): Structures made of large stones, such as Kudakkallu, Thoppikkallu, and Muniyara188.
◦ Nannangadis: Large clay urns used for burying mortal remains in the Megalithic period189190.
◦ Caves: Natural caves containing prehistoric pictures/inscriptions (e.g., Edakkal Cave)189191.
◦ Ancient Inscriptions: Messages engraved on stones, palm leaves, or
metal plates (e.g., Tharisappally inscriptions)190. Epigraphy is the
study of inscriptions192.
◦ Coins: Sources for economic, political, and cultural history193. Numismatics is the study of coins193.
• Literary Sources:
◦ Sangam Literature (Tamil): Sheds light on the ancient history of Kerala (e.g., Pathittupathu)194.
◦ Travelogues: Provide direct experiences of places, culture, and
economic structure (e.g., Abdur Razzaq, Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta)195196.
◦ Newspapers: Crucial for understanding day-to-day events and aspects of political, social, and economic history197.
Sources Specific to Local History
• Memories (Oral History): Collected from elders to reconstruct details about food culture, style of dressing, and practices198.
• Place Names: Can indicate geographical features or historical events (e.g., Kozhikode)199.
• Family History: Information on the contributions of individuals to the progress of a region200.
• Official Documents: Including Census reports, Court documents (e.g., on anti-British struggles), and Development Reports201.
• Bibliography: An essential factor in the structure of local history
writing, ensuring the authenticity of the study202. write without page
reference numbers
