9th Social Science II Term Notes

👉 Malayalam

CHAPTER 6: FROM THE LAND OF CHOLAS TO DELHI

• The Sixth theme of the book is ‘From the Land of Cholas to Delhi’.

• This theme deals with the history from the Chola Kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.

• The headquarters of the Cholas was Cholamandalam, which was located around Thanjavur (Tanjore).

• The Cholas attained power after defeating the Pallavas.

• The control over most of South India helped the Cholas achieve social and economic stability.

• An inscription detailing revenue collection is found on the southern wall of the second floor of the Brihadiswara Temple of Tanjore.

• The inscription, built by Rajaraja Chola, states that revenue was to be paid in paddy, gold, or cash.

• The paddy was measured using a Marakkal named after Rajakesari Adavallava (Rajaraja Chola).

• The Palaiyur Village (part of the Inkanad) included a Jaina temple and a community of Jaina teachers.

• The paddy collected amounted to 12530 kalam, two tuni, one kuruni, and one nazhi.

• The inscription describes the South Indian kingdom ruled by the Cholas from the ninth to thirteenth century CE.

• The Chola Kingdom was situated in the Kaveri River Valley, making the area rich in resources.

• Agriculture was the main occupation, and most people lived in villages.

• Crops cultivated included cereals, fruits, pulses, sugarcane, betel leaf, arecanut, ginger, turmeric, and flowers.

• Irrigation facilities (ponds, tanks, canals, and wells) were constructed by the rulers who recognized its significance.

• Bunds were constructed across rivers, and the collected water was distributed via canals.

• Erippatti: Huge ponds built in areas without natural streams to collect and protect rainwater from drying.

• Cultivators received tax concessions to encourage agricultural development and bring barren land under cultivation.

• Agriculture expanded through the donation of land to temples and Brahmins, though these lands were filled by agricultural laborers who lived like slaves.

• Thanjavur is located in the heart of Tamil Nadu and is highly suitable for agriculture due to rivers and canals.

• This area, rich with paddy fields and plantations, was known as the ‘granary of Tamizhakam’.

• The surplus generated through agricultural progress led to the development of trade.

• Inscriptions confirm that both internal and overseas trade were developed during the Chola period.

• Internal Trade: Several products were sold in local markets.

• Weaving was a crucial industry, supported by guilds of weavers.

• Quality textile items were exported to north India and other parts.

• Commercial Products: Sugarcane was important.

• Metal work (idols, vessels), gold and silver ornament making, and the manufacturing of iron tools were developed.

• Overseas Trade: Pearl and coral were collected and exported.

• Merchants from Cambodia visited the kingdom in the eleventh century.

• Important Coastal Trade Centres: Nagapattinam, Mahabalipuram, Kaveripoompattinam, Shaliyur, and Korkai.

• The site of the present Visakhapattanam port was called Kulothungacholapattanam.

• Rich merchant guilds like Nagarathar and Manigramam made brisk trade possible.

• Brihadiswara Temple (Rajarajeswara Temple): Located in Thanjavur, it is a key historical monument.

• Features: Surrounded by the Sivaganga Fort, has two huge sculptured gopuras at the entrance, and a Vimana (above the sanctum) with thirteen stories.

• UNESCO declared it a world heritage centre.

• Temples' Socio-Economic Role: Temples were wealthy institutions, inspiring kings to build them.

• Temple Income Sources: Land gifts, contributions from Grama Sabhas, tax from taxable lands, devotee contributions, and wealth from the institution’s economic transactions.

• Educational institutions and hospitals functioned alongside temples.

• Temples employed a large number of people; artisans and craftsmen relied on them for their livelihood.

• Foreign Relations: Cholas maintained trade relations with neighboring countries like Sri Lanka and established political domination there.

• Sri Lankan literary works (Mahavamsa and Choolavamsa) confirm this.

• Relations with South East Asia (Sumatra, Java, Malaysia) were very close.

• Cultural Influence: Traders, Buddhist, and Hindu sages/scholars traveled, leading to the spread of Chola language, religion, ideas, and architecture in South East Asia.

• Chola Administration: The king was assisted by a Council of Ministers.

• Marco Polo (visited Kerala in the 13th century) noted the Cholas had a very strong army, including a navy.

• The kingdom was divided into Mandalams, Valanadus, and Nadus for administrative convenience.

• Roads were built for trade development and army movement.

• Taxes included land tax, taxes on forests, mines, and salt, sale tax, and professional tax.

• Vetti (unpaid service) was also considered equal to tax.

• Village Self-Governance: Evidenced by the Uttharamaerur Inscription.

• Local Councils: Two types existed: ‘Ur’ (Assembly of the People) and ‘Sabha’ (Assembly of Elders in Brahmin Village). They had autonomous power.

• The Chola Lake: The Bay of Bengal was called this due to the naval dominance of the Cholas.

• Local administrative bodies were responsible for the maintenance of ponds, wells, and roads.

• The growth of feudalism constrained the activities of these local bodies.

• Gangaikonda Cholapuram: The capital of the later Cholas, located north of Kumbhakonam.

• Rajendra Chola shifted the capital from Thanjavur to this new city to commemorate his crossing of the Ganga and invasion of North India.

• Chola Society: Was not egalitarian; caste system and hierarchies existed.

• Brahmins were the highest section. The society included landless agricultural workers and slave labourers.

• The Chalukyas: Ruled South India and Deccan from the sixth to the twelfth century CE.

• The rock-cut temple at Vatapi (Badami) in Karnataka was built by the Chalukyas, featuring Jaina, Saiva, and Vaishnava deities.

• The Chalukyas initially built rock-cut temples but later shifted to structural temples.

• Examples of structural temples: Megutti Jaina Temple (Aihole) and Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakkal).

• Their temples evolved from the Gupta style but reflected the Dravidian style.

• The main feature of Dravidian architecture was the use of rock-cut stone for construction, sourced from the Western Ghats and Deccan Plateau.

• The Chalukyas collected wealth from agriculture in the fertile Deccan region (Krishna–Godavari Valleys).

• Surplus agricultural production allowed them to employ the necessary workforce from outside.

• The Chalukya kingdom extended across areas including parts of present-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.

• Chalukya Governance: There was no centralized monarchy like the Cholas.

• The monarchy was controlled by temples, Brahmins (owners of Brahmadeya land), and the Samantas (feudatories).

• Power often shifted; they ruled from centers like Vatapi, Venki, and Kalyani.

• The Chalukyas had a centralized taxation system and an organized bureaucracy.

• Rule was centered on military-powered lords. There was no standing army.

• Unlike the Cholas, there was no Council of Ministers; power was exercised by members of the royal family.

• The most notable ruler was Pulakesi II.

• Chalukya Empire features included centralized administration, Samanta Rule, local administration, and temple influence.

• The Palas: Ruled Eastern India (Bengal) from the eighth to mid-ninth century CE.

• Dharmapala (Pala king) rebuilt the Nalanda University (Buddhist study center) and granted 200 villages for its expenses.

• He founded the Vikramashila University in Magadha on the banks of the Ganga to spread knowledge.

• Pala kings built many Buddha Viharas.

• The Palas established relations with Tibet, leading many Buddhist followers to study at Nalanda and Vikramashila.

• They maintained relations with the Caliphs of Arabia and South East Asia (Malaya, Java, Sumatra), which improved the state's economic condition through trade.

• The Pratiharas: Ruled the western part of North India (8th to 10th century CE), concurrently with the Palas.

• Al-Masudi (a native of Baghdad) described the achievements of the Pratihara kings.

• Bhoja was the most prominent Pratihara ruler.

• Pratiharas promoted art and literature.

• Rajasekharan (Sanskrit poet/playwright, author of Kavyameemamsa and Karppuramanjari) lived in the Pratihara palace.

• They built temples and buildings at Kanauj.

• Indian Science and Mathematics were spread to the Arab world by scholars sent as diplomats to the Caliph of Baghdad (8th and 9th centuries).

• Trade and scholar travel between India and West Asia continued despite hostility between the Pratiharas and the Arabs of Sindh.

• The Teli Ka Mandir (Gwalior) was built during the Pratihara period.

• The Rashtrakutas: Dominated Deccan and South India from the eighth to the tenth century CE.

• Prominent Rulers: Govindan III and Amoghavarshan.

• Kavirajamargam in Kannada was written by Amoghavarshan.

• Rashtrakutas maintained religious tolerance, promoting Jainism alongside Saivism and Vaishnavism.

• They provided facilities for Muslim traders to settle, trade, and propagate their faith, strengthening foreign trade.

• The Malkhed Fort (Karnataka) was built by the Rashtrakutas.

• The rock-cut temple of Ellora (Kailasa Temple) was built by the Rashtrakutas.

• Social Structure (8th–12th centuries): Despite their progress, the society of the Rashtrakutas was further divided by caste.

• In addition to the Chaturvarnya, sections like carpenters, cobblers, and fishermen were subjected to untouchability and discrimination.

• The status of Vaishyas declined due to the fall of trade and growth of agriculture, while the status of Sudras improved as they joined the army.

• The status of women declined, despite their participation in religious and administrative areas.

• Delhi Sultanate: By the 13th century CE, most Indian territories came under a government centered in Delhi.

• Background: Arabs attacked Sindh in the 8th century CE, aiming for wealth and trade interests.

• This attack revealed India's political and military weakness.

• Turkish rulers Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammed of Ghor invaded India (11th and 12th centuries CE) attracted by the wealth.

• The Sultanate rule lasted from 1206 to 1526 CE and covered North India, Central India, and parts of South India.

• The five dynasties were: Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi.

• Arab Invasion of Sindh: Led by Muhammed Bin Qasim in 712 CE. The immediate cause was a pirate attack on a ship carrying gifts to the Caliph of Baghdad.

• Administrative Reforms: Market Control was executed during the reign of Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316).

• Market Control Objective: To control prices of all products, especially foodstuff.

• Reason: Khalji needed a large army to counter the Mongolian invasion; low prices allowed him to pay a low salary.

• He established warehouses and punished hoarders and those who charged high prices.

• Sultana Razia (1236–39): Daughter of Iltumish (Mamluk dynasty), nominated as his successor. This nomination was a significant change, although women rulers existed in Iran and Egypt.

• Socio-Economic Life (Sultanate Period): Moroccan traveler Ibn Batuta noted India's fertile soil allowed cultivation two or three times a year.

• The majority of the population were farmers, though they faced difficulties due to famines and wars.

• Crops included sugarcane, wheat, indigo, cotton, oil seeds, fruits, and flowers.

• This led to crafts like oil making, jaggery making, weaving, and textile coloring.

• Rahat Irrigation System (drawing water using cattle and a wheel) was in practice.

• Trade grew due to administrative stability, improved transportation, and a monetary system based on Tanka (Silver) and Dirham (Copper).

• Imports: Soft silk, glass, horses, Chinese vessels, ivory, and spices.

• India had more exports than imports, resulting in gold and silver flowing into the country.

• The growth of trade led to the growth of cities; Delhi and Daulatabad were the biggest cities of the eastern world.

• Bengal and Gujarat were known for textiles; Lahore, Multan, and Lucknow were busy towns.

• The Turks introduced paper making.

• Iqta System: Land was divided into iqtas and allotted to Turkish nobles who collected land revenue for the Sultan.

• Tax collection in cash fostered a cash economy and massive economic growth.

• The Iqta system was introduced by Iltumish.

• Cultural Life: Sultanate rule strongly influenced cultural life (e.g., musical instruments). This resulted in a symbiosis of two cultures.

• Social Life: Medieval society had inequalities; the Sultan and high nobles lived in high standards, while most people suffered.

• The caste system did not undergo fundamental changes.

• Hindus often served as leaders in the army and administration.

• Women's status declined, although some change was seen in their right over property.

• Architecture: Contributions include Qutb Minar, Tughlaqabad Fort, Haus Khas Complex, and Lodi Gardens in Delhi.

• Literature: Texts composed in Arabic; Indian scientific/astronomical works translated into Arabic.

• The Persian language came with the Turks.

• Amir Khusru wrote in Persian; history writing grew, with Ziauddin Barani as an important historian.

• Urdu Language: Evolved as a blend of 'Hindavi' (vernacular of Delhi) and Persian. Amir Khusru played a role in its development.

• Overall Conclusion (8th–15th Centuries): Small kingdoms in Deccan/South India were replaced by large states; a monarchical rule arose.

• The Turkish invasion led to the stable rule of the Delhi Sultanate for about three centuries.

• This period was characterized by cultural exchanges and integration.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 6)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
What information do we receive from the inscription about the Chola Kingdom?	Revenue was collected in paddy, gold, or cash, measured by the king's own Marakkal (Rajakesari Adavallava). The system was regulated and included institutions like Jaina temples.
Identify from the map the river that helped in the prosperity of the Chola kingdom. How could a river contribute to the progress of a country?	The Kaveri River. It provided rich resources and water for extensive irrigation (canals, bunds, Erippatti), making agriculture (the main occupation) highly productive and creating surpluses for trade.
Analyse the role played by the agriculture sector in the economy of the Chola Kingdom.	Agriculture created surplus production due to effective irrigation and tax concessions. This surplus was fundamental, allowing for the development of industries (weaving, metal work) and flourishing internal and overseas trade, thus driving the economy.
Assess the role played by temples in the socio-economic life of the Chola Kingdom.	Temples were very wealthy, funded by land and taxes. They served as major economic centers, employing large numbers of artisans and craftsmen. They also provided social services such as educational institutions and hospitals.
Compare the Chola and Chalukya reigns (Administration).	Chola: Strong centralized monarchy, Council of Ministers, standing army/navy, powerful local bodies (Ur, Sabha). Chalukya: Decentralized, monarchy controlled by Samantas (feudatories), rule centered on military lords, no standing army or Council of Ministers.
Examine how the agricultural progress during the reign of the Sultan influenced the country's economy.	Agricultural growth (fertile soil, Rahat irrigation) led to the development of crafts and industries (oil making, paper making). Combined with administrative stability and new coinage (Tanka/Dirham), this fostered robust trade (exports > imports). Tax collection in cash (Iqta system) led to a cash economy and urban growth.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 6)

1. Describe the characteristic features of the Chola economy, emphasizing irrigation and trade networks.

• The Chola economy was fundamentally agricultural, supported by the fertile Kaveri Valley.

• Rulers built massive irrigation structures like Erippatti (rainwater reservoirs) and bunds across rivers.

• Agricultural surplus led to developed internal and overseas trade, facilitated by merchant guilds (Nagarathar, Manigramam) and coastal centers (Nagapattinam).

2. How did the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas contribute to cultural development (education and architecture)?

• Palas: King Dharmapala rebuilt Nalanda University and founded Vikramashila University, promoting Buddhism and learning.

• Pratiharas: Promoted art and literature; supported poet Rajasekharan; spread Indian Science/Mathematics to the Arab world.

• Rashtrakutas: Built the rock-cut Kailasa Temple at Ellora; promoted regional literature (Amoghavarshan wrote Kavirajamargam in Kannada).

3. Discuss the administrative and economic reforms introduced during the Delhi Sultanate, specifically under Alauddin Khalji and Iltumish.

• Iltumish introduced the Iqta System, dividing land into units granted to nobles who collected revenue for the Sultan.

• Alauddin Khalji executed Market Control to regulate prices, allowing him to maintain a huge army with low expenses, enforced through strict punishment for hoarding.

• The use of Tanka (Silver) and Dirham (Copper) stabilized the monetary system, fostering trade.

4. Analyze the social structure during the Chola and Rashtrakuta periods.

• Neither society was egalitarian; both featured the caste system and hierarchies.

• Both periods saw Brahmins as the highest section and included slave laborers/landless workers.

• During the Rashtrakutas, while the status of Sudras improved (joining the army) and Vaishyas declined (fall of trade), women’s status generally declined.

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CHAPTER 7: EXTENSION OF DEMOCRACY THROUGH INSTITUTIONS

• Democracy is vital for ensuring a dignified life and fulfilling citizen aspirations.

• Constitutional institutions ensure the establishment and growth of democracy in India.

• Constitutional Bodies: Autonomous, formed when the Constitution began; source of power is the Constitution; changes require constitutional amendment.

• Extra Constitutional Bodies: Formed by laws passed by Parliament; can be given constitutional status later.

• These bodies implement fundamental constitutional values: equality, liberty, social justice, and secularism.

• They play a vital role in integrating marginalized and weaker sections into society.

• Election Commission (EC): A constitutional body established on 25 January 1950 based on Article 324.

• Composition: Chief Election Commissioner and two Commissioners, appointed by the President.

• Tenure: 6 years or up to age 65.

• The Chief Election Commissioner can only be removed through impeachment.

• EVM (Electronic Voting Machine): Implemented to ensure transparency and prevent election crimes. First experimented in Kerala in 1982; used nationwide in 2004 Parliament elections.

• The VVPAT (Voter Verified Paper Audit Trial) system is included for transparency.

• EC Functions:

  • Preparation of electoral rolls and issuance of identity cards.

  • Supervision and control of elections (President, Vice President, Parliament, State Assemblies).

  • Enforcement of the codes of conduct.

  • Recognition of political parties and allotment of symbols.

  • Scheduling polls/counting, declaring results, and resolving disputes.

  • Auditing election expenses.

• The People’s Representation Acts of 1950 and 1951 define the EC's duties under Article 327.

• Representation of People Act, 1950: Deals with fixing constituencies, delimiting boundaries, and preparing electoral rolls.

• Representation of People Act, 1951: Deals with the conduct of elections, eligibility/disqualification of elected members, election disputes, and registration criteria for political parties.

• National Voter's Day: Observed on January 25th (since 2011) to commemorate the EC's establishment and encourage voter participation.

• State Election Commission (SEC): Established via the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (Articles 243 (K) and 243 (ZA)).

• SEC Role: Conducts elections, prepares voter lists, and decides reservation of seats for local self-governments.

• National Human Rights Commission (NHRC): Established 12 October 1993 (HQ: New Delhi) to ensure civil rights and prevent violations.

• Chairperson: Retired Chief Justice/Judge of the Supreme Court.

• Tenure: 3 years or up to age 70.

• It functions under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.

• NHRC Functions: Inquire into complaints, examine failures by public servants, visit jails and rehabilitation centers to recommend reforms, and evaluate the functioning of human rights protection systems.

• State Human Rights Commission (SHRC): Exists at the state level (Kerala SHRC established 11 December 1998).

• National Commission for Women (NCW): Established 31 January 1992.

• Role: Intervenes in issues faced by women to ensure equal justice, gender equality, safety, and protect women’s rights.

• Tenure: 3 years.

• NCW Functions: Examines laws for safety, submits legislative proposals, advises governments on policy, and works to eliminate inequality.

• Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Outlaws the exchange of wealth based on prior agreement/compulsion related to marriage.

• Protection of Women Against Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Protects women from violence by partners or relatives, ensuring protection, boarding, and financial help.

• State Women’s Commission: Kerala SWC established 14 March 1996.

• National Commission for Minorities (NCM): Established 17 May 1993.

• Role: Ensures the welfare and rights of religious, linguistic, and cultural minorities.

• NCM Functions: Evaluates constitutional provisions, assesses social development, examines complaints of rights violation, and submits reports on issues faced by minorities.

• National Commissions for Scheduled Castes/Tribes (NCSC/NCST): Both established in 2004.

• Role: Protect SCs/STs from discrimination/exploitation and bring them to the mainstream while protecting their cultural identity.

• The SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, supports this effort by establishing special courts and ensuring rehabilitation.

• NCSC/NCST Functions: Inquire into atrocities, evaluate constitutional effectiveness, and coordinate welfare efforts.

• National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC): Established 1993; received constitutional status in 2018.

• Role: Works for the uplift of socially and economically backward sections, examining demands related to backward status and recommending steps against atrocities.

• These institutions collectively expand democracy into the social and economic domains by ensuring the participation and inclusion of marginalized sections.

• UPSC (Union Public Service Commission): Constitutional body (Article 320) responsible for recruitment to All India Service and Central Civil Service.

• National Commission for Protection of Child Rights: Established 5 March 2007 under the Ministry of Women and Child Development, focusing on children's education, health, care, welfare, and justice.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 7)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
List the different mechanisms set up for the institutionalization of democracy.	Constitutional Bodies (e.g., Election Commission, UPSC) and Extra Constitutional Bodies (e.g., National Human Rights Commission, National Commissions for Women, Minorities, SCs, STs, and Backward Classes).
How does the Election Commission function in ensuring a democratic election process?	It prepares the electoral roll, issues ID cards, recognizes political parties, enforces codes of conduct, schedules polls/counting, and uses transparent systems like EVM/VVPAT.
What are the Human Rights defined by the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993?	Rights to life, liberty, equal treatment, and dignity, as assured by the Constitution of India and international agreements.
What are the constitutional provisions for women’s safety and rights?	Laws like the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961) and Protection of Women Against Domestic Violence Act (2005). Constitutional Articles protect rights and fundamental duties demand renouncing practices derogatory to women (Article 15A (e)).
What is the primary role of the National Commission for Backward Classes?	To ensure the effective implementation of constitutional provisions for backward classes, examine demands related to backward status, and make recommendations to resolve their social, economic, and educational backwardness.
What are the two types of institutions that spread democracy?	Constitutional bodies and extra constitutional bodies.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 7)

1. Analyze the features, formation, and responsibilities of the Election Commission of India.

• The EC is a constitutional body (Article 324, 1950) composed of a CEC and two Commissioners.

• It supervises and controls all major elections, enforces the code of conduct, and recognizes political parties.

• Its efficiency is governed by the People’s Representation Acts of 1950 and 1951.

• The EC ensures political democracy by implementing universal adult suffrage and strengthening electoral literacy.

2. How do the constitutional commissions for marginalized sections (SCs, STs, Minorities, Women, Backward Classes) strengthen social democracy in India?

• These commissions (most established in the 1990s and 2000s) actively intervene to resolve socio-economic issues, prevent atrocities, and ensure equal opportunity.

• They integrate historically marginalized sections into the mainstream, protecting their rights, dignity, and cultural identities (e.g., the NCM protecting linguistic minorities; NCSC/NCST using the Prevention of Atrocities Act).

3. Explain the distinction between Constitutional and Extra Constitutional bodies with reference to their legal authority.

• Constitutional bodies (e.g., EC) derive their power directly from the Constitution; their structure or power cannot be changed without a constitutional amendment.

• Extra Constitutional bodies (e.g., NCW, NHRC—defined by the Protection of Human Rights Act 1993) are formed by laws passed by the Parliament. They can be given constitutional status later (like the NCBC in 2018).

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CHAPTER 8: TOWARDS A GENDER-NEUTRAL SOCIETY

• The Kerala High Court observed that gender and sex are distinct concepts and that individuals have the right to self-identify their gender.

• Sex: Refers to the biological characteristics (chromosomes, physical structures, hormones) that define males and females. It is biological.

• Gender: Refers to the social, cultural, and psychological characteristics associated with male and female through specific social contexts (e.g., associating colors with gender). It has no biological base.

• Gender as a Social Construct: Gender is not constant or biological; it is acquired and strengthened through social intervention.

• Society constructs expectations and behaviors for men and women (e.g., toys, roles).

• Socialization: The lifelong learning process by which individuals internalize the values and practices of society.

• Transgenders: People whose gender identity does not correspond with the gender they were assigned at birth (includes Transman and Transwoman).

• Status Distinction: Sex is inherited at birth (Ascribed Status). Gender is learned from culture (Achieved Status).

• Gender Status is determined by social interactions and behavioral patterns, not birth or physical features.

• Social Stratification: Social placement of individuals into hierarchical layers, where higher strata enjoy greater status (Historical examples: slavery, caste system).

• Role: The expected behavior associated with a status.

• Gender Role: Societal expectations regarding what men and women should do, think, say, and wear.

• Example: Men as primary breadwinners, women handling domestic duties. These roles limit individual choices.

• Social Norms: Unwritten laws regarding beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes accepted in a social group.

• Outlawed Social Evils:

  • Sati: Abolished by the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act of 1987.

  • Untouchability: Abolished by Article 17 of the Constitution and the Untouchability (Offences) Act of 1955.

• Stereotype: A social classification based on oversimplified and generalized assumptions regarding groups, including gender.

• Stereotypes present incorrect notions as basic qualities of men and women (e.g., that women are inherently emotional, or men should do all difficult work).

• Reinforcement of Stereotypes:

  • Media: Advertisements often reinforce gender stereotypes by associating specific products with specific genders (e.g., cement for men, utensils for women).

  • Language: Nouns classified by gender; the usage of terms like 'lady doctor' implies that 'doctor' is predominantly male. Gender-inclusive terms (Teacher, Engineer, Nurse) are used to challenge this.

• Gender roles, norms, and stereotypes result in gender discrimination, violence, and a lack of equality.

• Gender-based violence includes sexual assault, dowry atrocities, and female foeticide.

• Historical Struggles:

  • Upper Cloth Revolt (Marumarackal Samaram): 19th-century struggle in South Travancore for women's right to cover their upper body.

  • Kallumala Uprising (Perinad Revolt): Led by Ayyankali against the practice forcing Pulaya women to wear stone/glass necklaces.

• Just Society: One where every individual receives equal social, economic, and political justice irrespective of caste, religion, or gender.

• Gender in the Constitution:

  • Article 14: Ensures equality of all genders before law.

  • Article 15: Prohibits gender-based discrimination.

  • Article 16: Ensures equality of opportunity.

  • Article 19 (1) (a): Right to freely express gender identity.

  • Article 21: Right to dignity, liberty, and privacy.

  • Article 15A (e): Fundamental duty to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 8)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
How are 'gender' and 'sex' distinct concepts according to the Kerala High Court?	Sex refers to biological characteristics, while gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. Individuals have the right to self-identify their gender.
What is the difference between Ascribed Status and Achieved Status in relation to gender?	Ascribed Status (e.g., Sex) is inherited at birth. Achieved Status (e.g., Gender) is learned and formed through one's ability, choice, and social interactions.
Give examples of gender roles in society.	Examples include the assumption that men should be the primary breadwinners and women should manage domestic duties, or that men are symbols of strength while women symbolize affection.
Which ancient social evils were abolished by law, and which laws were used?	Sati, abolished by the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act of 1987. Untouchability, abolished by Article 17 of the Constitution and the Untouchability (Offences) Act of 1955.
What are gender-inclusive terms?	Words that are not identifiable as male or female and are used to refer to both genders in a profession, such as Teacher, Engineer, or Nurse.
What does Article 15A (e) of the Constitution state regarding women's dignity?	It is the fundamental duty of Indian citizens to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 8)

1. Define Gender Stereotypes and discuss the role of media and language in their perpetuation.

• Gender Stereotypes are oversimplified, generalized, and often incorrect assumptions about the inherent qualities and roles of men and women.

• Media reinforces these by linking specific genders to specific products (e.g., cars/cement for men).

• Language reinforces stereotypes by using gendered nouns or terms that imply male dominance in certain professions, necessitating the use of terms like 'lady doctor' to specify female practitioners.

2. Explain the significance of the constitutional provisions regarding gender equality (Articles 14, 15, 15A (e), 21).

• The Constitution mandates a fair society free from inequality.

• Article 14 ensures equality before law, and Article 15 strictly prohibits discrimination based on gender.

• Article 21 protects the right to dignity, liberty, and privacy for all genders.

• Article 15A (e) imposes a fundamental duty on citizens to actively renounce practices that demean women's dignity.

3. Differentiate between the terms 'Sex' and 'Gender' and explain the concept of Transgender identity.

• Sex is biological, inherited, and refers to physical differences (Ascribed Status).

• Gender is cultural, psychological, learned through socialization, and refers to societal expectations (Achieved Status).

• Transgender refers to an individual whose gender identity (what they feel they are) does not correspond with the sex assigned to them at birth.

CHAPTER 5: INDIAN ECONOMY THROUGH VARIOUS SECTORS

• Occupations provide income to people.
• These occupations are considered economic activities.
• Economic activities are categorized into primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors of the economy.
• Primary Sector: Includes activities that directly utilize natural resources.
• Examples: Agricultural activities, animal husbandry, and fishing.
• The primary sector is also known as the Agricultural sector because it gives more importance to agriculture and allied activities.
• The National Statistical Office (NSO) prepares the economic statistical data of India.
• The NSO was formed in 2019 by combining the Central Statistical Office (CSO) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO).
• NSO functions: Collects, analyzes, and publishes the economic statistical data of India, including national income.
• NSO data is utilized to formulate economic policies, plan government projects, and monitor economic growth.
• Products from the primary sector can be directly consumed or used as raw materials for the production of other products.
• Primary Sector Activities listed (as examples to complete Fig 5.2): Agriculture and allied activities, Livestock rearing, Forestry, Quarrying, Fishing, Mining.
• Secondary Sector: Includes economic activities related to industry and manufacturing.
• It involves the processing of raw materials from the primary sector into finished products.
• The secondary sector is also called the Industrial sector.
• Secondary Sector Activities listed (as examples to complete Fig 5.3): Industry, Construction works, Electricity, Gas.
• Tertiary Sector (Service Sector): Activities enhance the storing and marketing efficiency of the primary and secondary sectors.
• This sector also ensures services in various fields like health and education.
• The economy grows when these three sectors work in tandem.
• Tertiary Sector Activities listed (as examples to complete Fig 5.4): Transportation, Communication, Trade and commerce, Hotels and Restaurants, Banking, Insurance, Real estate, Health, Education, Water supply.
• Interdependence of Sectors: The production process is completed through the interdependence between the various sectors.
• Example of Sugarcane Production Assistance: Secondary sector provides machinery and fertilizers; Tertiary sector provides transportation and financial assistance.
• Economic Growth: Interdependence between sectors is essential for ensuring economic growth.
• Major Economic Activities: Production, distribution, and consumption.
• Production: The process of making goods and services by utilizing factors of production.
• Distribution: Allocating produced goods/services or income among individuals and factors of production (the allocated income is used for consumption or saving).
• Consumption: The process of utilizing goods and services to satisfy various needs and wants.
• The economy prospers when these activities (production, distribution, consumption) are boosted.
• National Income (NI): The sum total of the income generated from all the economic activities that have taken place in a year.
• Final goods: Products that can be consumed directly.
• Intermediate goods: A product used as a raw material to produce another product.
• NI is the sum total of the money value of all final goods and services produced in an accounting year.
• In India, the financial year runs from 1st April to 31st March.
• Income generated by the three sectors (primary, secondary, tertiary) is an indicator of economic growth.
• Importance of Measuring National Income:
◦ To understand the economic growth of the country.
◦ To assess the contribution of different sectors.
◦ To help the government plan and implement various projects.
◦ To compare the economic status of countries.
◦ To understand different types of investments and expenditure of the people.
◦ To understand the strength and weakness of the economy.
• Methods of Measuring National Income: Product Method, Income Method, Expenditure Method.
• Product Method: Calculates NI by adding the value of all final goods and services produced in the three sectors in a financial year.
• Formula: National Income (NI) = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4.......... + xn.
• Income Method: NI is the sum total of incomes generated by the factors of production (land, labour, capital, organization) in the form of rent, wages, interest, and profit.
• Formula: NI = r + w + i + p (r=rent, w=wage, i=interest, p=profit).
• This method helps identify the proportion of income of each factor and calculate the Gross National Income (GNI).
• Expenditure Method: Calculates NI by adding together all expenses incurred in the purchase of goods and services.
• Investment is also considered expenditure.
• Total expenditure includes consumption expenditure, investment expenditure, government expenditure, and net export value.
• Formula: National Income (NI) = C + I + G + (X-M).
• The Expenditure Method calculates the Gross National Expenditure (GNE).
• All three methods (Product, Income, Expenditure) yield the same result for National Income.
• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The sum total of the money value of all final goods and services produced within the domestic territory of a country.
• Income received by workers abroad or profit earned by enterprises abroad are not included in GDP.
• Domestic Territory: A region under a national government's jurisdiction with absolute freedom for performing economic activity.
• Government Expenditure (Public Expenditure): Incurred for general welfare; divided into developmental and non-developmental expenditure.
• Consumption Expenditure: Incurred by the consumer for purchasing goods and services.
• Investment Expenditure: Incurred on capital goods by industrial units, individuals, or institutions (e.g., purchasing land and machinery).
• Net Exports (X-M): The difference between the value of exports (X) and imports (M).
• Depreciation Cost: Expenses incurred to rectify wear and tear or obsolescence of capital assets.
• Net National Product (NNP): Calculated by deducting depreciation from GNP.
• Formula: Net National Product (NNP) = GNP - Depreciation cost.
• Economic Territory Includes: Air space, territorial waters; embassies/high commissions in other countries; zones where the country has exclusive rights (like fishing/mineral collection); free zones of offshore enterprises.
• Foreign embassies/high commissions in India are not included in India's economic territory.
• GDP is suitable for analyzing sectoral contributions within a country.
• Gross National Product (GNP): Sum total of money value of all final goods and services produced by the residents of a country (domestically and abroad).
• GNP is calculated by adding the income of Indians/Indian firms abroad to GDP, while excluding income earned by foreigners/foreign firms from India.
• Per Capita Income (PCI): An essential tool to understand the economic condition of an economy.
• Formula: PCI = National Income / Total Population.
• Limitations in Measuring National Income:
1. Lack of accurate statistical data.
2. Double counting (counting a product's value in more than one stage).
3. Non-inclusion of goods/services produced for self-consumption.
4. Not including products whose monetary value is not determined in the market.
5. Value of household work not included.
• The NSO strives to calculate national income accurately despite these limitations.
• Sectoral contribution determines total income, necessitating the empowerment of each sector.
• Sector-wise contribution indicates performance standards and interdependence.
• Sectoral Contribution Measurement: Since January 2015, the NSO uses the concept of Gross Value Added (GVA) to find sectoral contribution, replacing GDP for this purpose.
• GVA method is relatively fast and accurate.
• Gross Value Added (GVA): The sum total of the value of goods and services produced in an economy.
• Formula: GVA = Gross Product Value - Value of Intermediate Consumption.
• Intermediate consumption: Consumption of raw materials used to produce a good or service.
• Tax: A compulsory payment made to the government to meet public interest expenses (welfare, developmental activities).
• Subsidy: Financial support or assistance provided by the government on goods/services based on socio-economic policies.
• GDP Calculation using GVA: Taxes or subsidies on the product are not considered in GVA, but the difference between product tax and product subsidy is added to calculate GDP.
• Formula: GDP = GVA + (Product tax - Product subsidy).
• Gross State Value Added (GSVA): Used to observe sectoral contribution changes in Kerala.
• Reasons for High Tertiary Sector Share (GVA/GSVA):
1. Programmes implemented for the development of health and education.
2. Growth of the banking and insurance sector facilitating trade and commerce.
3. Growth of transport and communication sector.
4. Tourism development.
5. Growth of knowledge-based industries.
• Human Capital: Individual traits useful in the production process, including knowledge, skills, health, and education of human resources.
• Knowledge-based Sector: Effectively utilizes knowledge and technology for economic growth.
• Modern technology and ICT possibilities have elevated the nation into a knowledge economy.
• Knowledge-based services (part of the tertiary sector) have momentum; Indian ICT provides software services internationally.
• The large youth population (65% below 35 years) provides a great opportunity.
• The Government of Kerala established Technopark and Infopark as examples of prioritizing knowledge-based sector development.
• Employment Structure: Disparities exist in the occupational structure across different sectors.
• Structural Transformation: A change in the relative importance of different sectors during economic growth, implying changes in contribution and employment opportunities.
• Organised Sector:
◦ Functions under a proper legal system.
◦ Assures a safe working atmosphere and protects labor rights.
◦ Firms are registered under laws like the Companies Act or Factory Law.
◦ Features: Registered, permanent jobs ensured, comparatively high salary, job security.
• Unorganised Sector:
◦ Neither under any proper legal system nor maintains proper accounts.
◦ Exists informally and does not submit to any specific registration or law code.
◦ Features: Unregistered, no assurance of permanent job, comparatively low salary, lack of job security.
• Problems Faced by Unorganised Sector: Unsafe workplaces, long working hours, and low wages.
• These problems hinder development of human capital, lower contribution to national income, and widen socio-economic inequality.
• The Unorganised Worker's Social Security Act - 2008: Empowers central and state governments to implement policies ensuring healthcare, maternity benefits, old age protection, education, housing, and social security benefits for unorganized workers.
• The Code on Social Security 2020: Formed to ensure social security for employees in both organized and unorganized sectors.
• This law confers various benefits on self-employed, housekeepers, daily wage workers, interstate workers, and gig platform workers.
• Gig Platform Worker: Defined as 'a worker who works outside the conventional employer - employee relationship and earns money from it'.
• Gig Worker Features: Engage formal contracts when needed, jobs are temporary/time-bound, can work in multiple establishments simultaneously, freedom to work according to time/situation, opportunities to test talent.
• Examples: Freelancers, independent contractors, online food distribution workers, drivers.
• The growth of national income depends on the mutual relationships among the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 5)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
Complete the diagram related to primary sector (Fig 5.2).	Primary Sector includes: Agriculture and allied activities, Livestock rearing, Forestry, Quarrying, Fishing, Mining.
Complete the diagram related to secondary sector (Fig 5.3).	Secondary Sector includes: Industry, Manufacturing, Construction works, Electricity, Gas.
Complete the diagram related to tertiary sector (Fig 5.4).	Tertiary Sector includes: Transportation, Communication, Trade and commerce, Hotels and Restaurants, Banking, Insurance, Real estate, Health, Education, Water supply.
How are the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors mutually related?	They are mutually dependent, as the primary sector supplies raw materials, the secondary sector processes them, and the tertiary sector provides essential services (like transport, finance, marketing) to facilitate both production and distribution.
What happens to per capita income if the population of a country increases more than the national income?	If the total population increases faster than the National Income, the Per Capita Income (PCI) will decrease.
Which sector shows a continuous declining trend as per GVA values (1982-83 to 2022-23)?	The Agriculture and Allied Sector shows a continuous declining trend in the share of GVA.
Which sector shows continuous increase in the share of GVA (1982-83 to 2022-23)?	The Service Sector shows a continuous increase in the share of GVA.
Which sector comprises the largest volume of labourers during the period 1991 to 2019-20?	The Agriculture and Allied Sectors (Primary Sector) comprised the largest volume of laborers throughout this period, though its share declined.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 5)

1. Distinguish between Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary sectors.

• Primary: Direct use of natural resources (Agriculture sector).

• Secondary: Industry and manufacturing; processing raw materials (Industrial sector).

• Tertiary: Services, support for the other two sectors (Service sector).

2. Explain the three methods of measuring National Income.

• Product Method: Sum of money value of all final goods/services produced.

• Income Method: Sum of rent, wages, interest, and profit (r + w + i + p).

• Expenditure Method: Sum of consumption, investment, government expenditure, and net exports (C + I + G + (X-M)).

3. Differentiate between Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP).

• GDP: Value of final goods/services produced within the domestic territory.

• GNP: Value of final goods/services produced by the residents of a country (domestic + abroad).

4. List the limitations faced when measuring National Income.

• Lack of accurate statistical data; Double counting; Non-inclusion of products for self-consumption; Not including non-market determined values; Value of household work not included.

5. Compare and contrast the Organised and Unorganised sectors.

• Organised: Registered, safe work, legal system, job security, high salary.

• Unorganised: Unregistered, informal, lack of job security, low salary, faces problems like unsafe workplaces.

• The government enacted laws like the Code on Social Security 2020 to benefit workers in both sectors, including gig platform workers.

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CHAPTER 6: PRICE AND MARKET

• Basic Needs (Primary Needs): Essential for human life (air, food, water, cloth, shelter).
• Wants: Needs that help in achieving life aspirations but are not essential for survival.
• Fulfilling needs and wants depends on available economic resources.
• Producers recognize needs and produce goods and services accordingly.
• Inputs: Factors used in the production process (e.g., bamboo, wood pulp, land, labour, machines).
• Outputs: Goods produced using inputs.
• Production: The process of converting input into output.
• Methods to increase production: Increase input quantity, use better technology, increase factor productivity.
• Production Function: The technical relationship between inputs used and outputs produced within a specific period of time.
• Formula: Q = f (N, L, K, O) (Q=Output; N=Land; L=Labour; K=Capital; O=Organisation).
• Fixed Inputs: Inputs whose quantity cannot be changed in a short period (e.g., Land, Organization).
• Variable Inputs: Inputs whose quantity can be changed within a short period of time (e.g., Labour, Capital).
• Short-run production function: Situation where at least one input is fixed.
• Long-run production function: Situation where all inputs are variable.
• Consumption: Buying and using goods and services to fulfill one's needs.
• Consumer: A person who buys and uses goods and services.
• Consumer satisfaction is the main aim of all economic activities.
• Consumption is primarily influenced by the consumer's financial capacity.
• Consumption Pattern: How a person's total income is utilized for different needs and wants (food, health, education, etc.).
• Consumption patterns vary among people.
• Factors influencing consumption (besides income): Tastes and preferences, Climate, Environmental awareness.
• The major economic challenge is the conflict between unlimited human needs/wants and limited resources.
• Resources must be scientifically utilized, considering the needs of future generations.
• Sustainable Consumption: Consumption of goods and services that minimizes environmental impact.
• Aim of Sustainable Consumption: Use and reuse of resources considering future generations.
• Sustainable Production Goals:
1. Produce with minimum exploitation/misuse of natural resources.
2. Reduce environmental impacts through efficient resource use.
3. Maximize renewable possibility of resources.
4. Deliver necessary items through production and recycling.
5. Ensure maximum energy conservation.
6. Ensure safe workplace environment and worker safety.
• The UN Sustainable Development Goal 12 relates to ensuring sustainable consumption and production.
• Sustainable Development: Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generations.
• It refers to development achieved by controlling over-exploitation of resources and reducing environmental impacts.
• The UN announced 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015, aiming for achievement by 2030.
• Relationship between Producers and Consumers: Mutually dependent. Producers produce based on needs, and consumers pay the price; Consumers supply labor, and producers pay wages.
• The market facilitates this interrelationship.
• Market: The mechanism through which exchange of goods and services between sellers and consumers takes place.
• Markets ensure proper distribution and utilization of resources.
• General characteristics of a market: Presence of buyers/sellers, price determination, equal importance of buyers/sellers, opportunity to select goods, marketing techniques.
• Price determination depends on the demand of the consumer and the availability (supply) of the product.
• Demand: The desire for a commodity backed up by the willingness and ability to pay.
• Demand Schedule: A table showing the quantity demanded at different price levels.
• The schedule shows an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded.
• Demand Curve: A graph presenting the demand schedule; it slopes downwards from left to right.
• Supply: The quantity of goods and services made available in the market by the sellers.
• Supply Schedule: A table showing the quantity supplied at different price levels.
• The schedule shows a direct relationship between price and quantity supplied (price increases, supply increases).
• Supply Curve: A graph presenting the supply schedule; it moves upwards from bottom left to top right.
• Equilibrium Price: The price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are equal.
• Price is determined by the forces of demand and supply interaction.
• Equilibrium: The condition in which demand and supply are equal (Point E where curves intersect).
• Equilibrium Quantity: The quantity determined at the equilibrium price.
• Disequilibrium: The condition in which demand and supply are not equal.
• Markets constantly strive to maintain equilibrium. If demand exceeds supply, prices rise, decreasing purchasing power, forcing prices back down toward equilibrium.
• Marketing Techniques: Plans adopted by producers to achieve sales targets by understanding customer needs, gaining credibility, and maximizing sales.
• Producers use innovative methods to reduce production costs and supply wide variety of products.
• Price Control: Governments intervene to control the price of essential goods because rising prices affect the standard of living.
• This is done through the public distribution system (selling essential goods at lower prices) and fixing support prices.
• Minimum Support Price (MSP): Minimum price fixed by the government on agricultural products.
• Purpose of MSP: To protect farmers from losses when market price is lower than production cost.
• Price Control Definition: Fixing the highest and the lowest price for goods and services by the government.
• Objective of Price Control: To intervene in the market, ensure reasonable exchange prices, and protect both producer and consumer interests.
• Digital Marketing: Marketing using digital channels and information technology, typically relying extensively on the internet.
• Digital marketing is also known as Online marketing, web marketing, and internet marketing (first used in the 1990s).
• Features of Digital Marketing: Uses Internet-based technology, customers do not need to visit the market, saves time, offers diverse/attractive products, creates new job opportunities.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 6)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
Complete the word sun for notebook inputs.	Inputs include: Bamboo/Wood pulp, Machines, Fuel, Buildings, Land, Labour, Organisation.
What are the different possible methods used by the producers to increase production if demand is high?	Increase quantity of inputs, use better technology, increase productivity of factors of production.
Complete the diagram for factors influencing consumption (besides income).	Tastes and preferences of consumer, Climate, Environmental awareness, Price, Availability.
Specify the relationship between quantity of the product and its price in the demand curve.	The demand curve shows an inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded of a product.
Specify the relationship between the quantity supplied and the price in the supply curve.	The supply curve shows a direct relationship between quantity supplied and its price.
What may be the changes in the market in a situation where the demand for the product decreases and the availability (supply) increases?	The price of the product decreases.
What may be the changes in the market in a situation where the demand increases and the availability (supply) decreases?	The price of the product increases.
What is the equilibrium price and the equilibrium quantity at Point E (Fig 6.6)?	The equilibrium price is Rs. 15, and the equilibrium quantity is 30 Kilograms.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 6)

1. Explain the concepts of Fixed Inputs and Variable Inputs, linking them to Short-run and Long-run production functions.

• Fixed Inputs (e.g., Land, Organization) cannot be changed quickly. Variable Inputs (e.g., Labour, Capital) can be changed quickly.

• A Short-run function exists when at least one input is fixed. A Long-run function exists when all inputs are variable.

2. Define Sustainable Development and list the goals of Sustainable Production.

• Sustainable Development: Meeting present needs without compromising future generations' needs.

• Sustainable Production Goals: Minimum exploitation of resources, efficient use of resources, maximizing renewable possibility, ensuring energy conservation, and safe workplace environment.

3. Explain the concept of Demand and illustrate it using the Demand Curve.

• Demand is the desire backed by willingness and ability to pay.

• The demand curve slopes downwards from left to right, illustrating the inverse relationship between price and quantity demanded.

4. Explain the concept of Supply and illustrate it using the Supply Curve.

• Supply is the quantity ready to be sold at a given price.

• The supply curve moves upwards from bottom left to top right, illustrating the direct relationship between price and quantity supplied.

5. How is Equilibrium Price determined in the market?

• Equilibrium price is determined by the mutual interaction of the forces of demand and supply. It is the price point where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. Markets self-correct to maintain this equilibrium.

6. What is the role of the government in price control (Minimum Support Price)?

• Governments intervene (price control) to protect both consumers (against high prices of essentials) and producers (against losses). MSP is the minimum price fixed for agricultural products to protect farmers from production loss when market prices are low.

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CHAPTER 7: THROUGH THE SANDY EXPANSE

• Eremology: The study of deserts.
• Deserts: Generally, places that receive an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm.
• Types of Deserts: Cold deserts and Hot deserts.
• Cold Deserts: Characterized by permanent snow cover and extreme cold throughout the year. Found in polar regions, mountains, and high plateaus of temperate regions.
• Hot Deserts: Arid places generally located between 15° and 30° latitudes along the western margins of the continents.
• Hot deserts have very high daytime temperatures and very low nighttime temperatures.
• The diurnal range of temperature (difference between day and night temperature) is very high in hot deserts.
• The Thar Desert (The Great Indian Desert) is the hot desert located in India.
• Natural Boundaries of the Thar Desert:
◦ Northwest: Sutlej River Basin.
◦ East: Aravali Mountains.
◦ West: Indus River Basin.
◦ South: Rann of Kachchh.
• Extent: Spans around 200,000 square kilometers, with 175,000 sq km in India.
• Location: About two-thirds is in Rajasthan; the rest extends over Haryana, Punjab, and Gujarat (India), and into Pakistan.
• Formation of Thar Desert (Scanty Rainfall):
1. Arabian Branch of Southwest Monsoon: Passes parallel to the Aravali mountains without entering the interior parts of Rajasthan, leading to very low rainfall.
2. Bay of Bengal Branch of Southwest Monsoon: Movement is checked by the Aravali mountains in northwestern India, so the Thar desert does not receive rain from this branch either.
• The high rate of evaporation and arid winds further reduce rainfall possibility.
• The Thar Desert is essentially a rain shadow region based on the movement of the Arabian branch of the southwest monsoon winds.
• Geographical Classification of Thar Desert:
1. The Marusthali (The Arid Plain or Desert Proper):
2. The Rajasthan Bagar (The Semi-arid Plain):
• Marusthali Features: Vast sandy expanse; few outcrops of bedrock (gneisses, schists, granites). Geologically the northwestern extension of the Peninsular Plateau. Average elevation: 200–250 meters. Western part covered by shifting dunes locally known as Dhrian.
• Rajasthan Bagar Features: Eastern part up to the Aravali range; semi-arid plain. Drained by short seasonal rivers.
• Rohi: Fertile tracts in Rajasthan Bagar where agriculture is possible.
• River Luni: The most significant river; seasonal; flows towards the Rann of Kachchh.
• Thali: Sandy plain located to the north of the Luni River.
• Salt Lakes: Rajasthan Bagar has several salt lakes.
• Sambhar Lake: The largest and most significant salt lake (65km west of Jaipur), used extensively for salt production.
• River Luni Origin: Originates from the Aravali mountain range near Ajmer. It is non-perennial and disappears into the Rann of Kachchh. Its name means 'salt river'.
• Landforms (Erosion by Wind): Strong desert winds cause erosion.
• Deflation: Erosional process where sand is blown off by wind. Causes Deflation Hollows (shallow depressions) and Caves in rocks.
• Abrasion: Erosional process where strong winds carrying sand/rock particles rub against rock outcrops and wear them down.
• Mushroom Rocks: Formed due to the high rate of abrasion wearing out the lower portions of rocks more significantly.
• Landforms (Deposition by Wind): When wind velocity decreases, sand grains are deposited.
• Sand Dunes: Loose mounds of sand formed due to the depositional process of wind.
• Types of sand dunes found: Barchans (crescent shaped), Sief dunes, Linear, Parabolic, Longitudinal, Transverse dunes.
• The Oases: Fertile patches in deserts formed due to the presence of a fresh water source (springs or groundwater).
• Crops cultivated in oases: Cotton, citrus plants, fruit plants, wheat, and corn.
• Climate in Thar Desert: Arid, severe drought, and water scarcity in summer.
• Summer Season (March to June): Very hot and dry. Temperatures reach 40°C to 45°C. Characterized by low humidity, hot winds called 'Loo,' and dust winds.
• Rainy Season (July to September): Very low annual rainfall (less than 25 cm).
• Winter Season (December to February): Mean minimum temperatures 5°C to 10°C. Extreme cold in January, with night temperatures often falling below 0°C.
• Soil Type: Desert Soil (Arid Soil): Sandy structure, brown color.
• Characteristics: High salinity (due to evaporation) and alkaline nature (due to scanty rainfall). Cultivation is possible with sufficient irrigation.
• Vegetation: Major types are thorny plants and shrubs with fleshy stems and no leaves.
• Examples: Drought-resistant plants like Gum arabic acacia and Euphorbia.
• Fauna: Adapted to survive the harsh climate.
• The camel is a major animal, referred to as the 'ship of the desert'.
• Other animals: Reptiles, scorpions, mongooses, red foxes, chinkara, Indian bustard, blackbucks.
• Human Life: Sparsely populated; difficult, nomadic migration occurs during severe droughts.
• Agriculture: Favorable only for crops requiring minimal water (bajra, jowar, millets, cotton). Commercial farming relies on irrigation.
• Indira Gandhi Canal Project: Important irrigation project constructed through the Thar Desert.
• Indira Gandhi Canal Benefits: Increased agricultural production, flourished agriculture-associated industries, improved fodder availability. Supplies drinking water to eight districts.
• Pastoralism: Cattle rearing is widespread since farming is limited. Rajasthan accounts for about 10% of India's livestock.
• Mining: Deposits of lead, zinc, silver, copper, gypsum, lignite, and limestone.
• Makrana marble is world-famous (used in the Taj Mahal).
• Handicrafts Industry: Artisans create leather products using camel hides (lampshades, sandals, traditional instruments).
• Energy Generation: Windmills (Wind Parks) and solar panels are used for electricity generation, primarily for desalination of water.
• Tourism: A major source of income.
• Attractions: National parks, Hawa Mahal, Ajmer Fort, Dilwara Jain Temple, Ranakpur Jain Temple, and camel safaris.
• Challenges: Extreme temperatures (up to 50°C), acute water scarcity, lack of good road network (due to wind-blown sand and melting tar), and inadequate communication.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 7)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
Write the features of such deserts that make them stand out from other parts of the world.	Arid climate, scanty vegetation, extreme diurnal temperature range, presence of specific landforms (dunes, hollows).
Prepare an analytical note on the role of Aravali mountain ranges in the formation of the Thar Desert.	The Aravali mountains lie parallel to the Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoon winds, preventing them from causing rain in the interior. They also check the movement of the Bay of Bengal branch. This geographic positioning is key to the Thar's arid conditions.
Why is the salinity in the water bodies of the Thar Desert high?	High salinity results from the high rate of evaporation caused by the high temperature and arid climate experienced in the region.
Why does the Thar Desert receive a very less amount of rainfall?	1. The Arabian Sea branch of the SW monsoon passes parallel to the Aravali mountains. 2. The Bay of Bengal branch is blocked by the Aravali mountains. 3. High rate of evaporation and arid winds.
Write an essay on the topic 'The role of tourism in the life of people in the Thar Desert'.	Tourism is a major income source; it provides employment to locals (e.g., local guides, camel safari operators); attractions include temples, forts, and national parks.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 7)

1. Describe the location and boundaries of the Thar Desert.

• Location: Northwestern part of the Indian Subcontinent, primarily in Rajasthan (between 15° and 30° latitudes).

• Boundaries: Northwest—Sutlej River Basin; East—Aravali Mountains; West—Indus River Basin; South—Rann of Kachchh.

2. Explain the geographical classification of the Thar Desert.

• Marusthali (Desert Proper): Arid plain, sandy expanse, shifting dunes (Dhrian), northwestern extension of Peninsular Plateau.

• Rajasthan Bagar (Semi-arid Plain): Eastern part up to Aravali, drained by seasonal rivers (Luni), presence of fertile tracts (Rohi) and salt lakes (Sambhar Lake).

3. Describe the landforms formed by erosional and depositional activities of wind in hot deserts.

• Erosional: Deflation (blowing away sand, forming Deflation Hollows/Caves) and Abrasion (rubbing against rocks, forming Mushroom Rocks).

• Depositional: Sand Dunes (loose mounds of sand, e.g., Barchans, Sief dunes) formed when wind velocity decreases.

4. Discuss the importance of the Indira Gandhi Canal Project.

• The canal provides essential irrigation and drinking water through the Thar Desert. It significantly increased agricultural production and supported livestock rearing and associated industries.

5. Write a brief note on the climate and soil of the Thar Desert.

• Climate: High diurnal range; severe summers (Loo winds, 40°–45°C); cold winters (below 0°C); very low rainfall (< 25 cm).

• Soil: Desert Soil (Arid Soil); sandy structure, brown, high salinity, alkaline in nature, suitable for crops only with irrigation.

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CHAPTER 8: ALONG THE COASTS

• India has a coastline of about 7517 km, including Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The coastal plain is densely populated.
• Factors suitable for settlement: Plain land, favorable climate, and availability of water.
• Coastal Plain Divisions:
1. The Western Coastal Plain.
2. The Eastern Coastal Plain.
• Western Coastal Plain: A narrow strip between the peninsular plateau and the Arabian Sea.
• Extent: Kachchh (Gujarat) to Kanyakumari (~1840 km).
• Width: Between 10 and 15 kms.
• Type: A submerged coast (formed by tectonic subsidence, leading to coastal land subsiding or sea level rising).
• Divisions of Western Coastal Plain: Gujarat Coast, Konkan Coast, and Malabar Coast.
• Characteristic feature: Backwaters (Kayals) found along the coasts.
• Gujarat Coastal Plain: Includes Rann of Kachchh, Kachchh, and Sourashtra.
• Formation: Alluvial deposition by rivers like Mahi and Sabarmati.
• Features: Islands, peninsulas, straits, marshes, tidal creeks, and hills.
• Rann of Kachchh: A salt marsh on the India–Pak border. It is a dry salt desert that becomes water-logged during the rainy season.
• Konkan Coast: Stretches from Daman to Goa (~500 km).
• Width: Narrower because the Western Ghats run parallel to the coast.
• Features: Sandy in the north, rocky in the south; cliffs, islands, and beaches.
• Climate: Humid with abundant rainfall, leading to rich biodiversity.
• Economic Activities: Natural harbors (Nhavasheva, Mormugao), fishing harbor (Malpe), shipyards, tourism.
• St. Mary's Island has hexagonal-shaped rock formations called 'columnar joints'.
• Malabar Coast: Stretches from Mangalore to Kanyakumari (~580 km).
• Features: Wider than Konkan coast; includes cliffs, sea stacks, beaches, estuaries, sand bars, and kayals (backwaters).
• Vembanad Lake is an important backwater. The canalized backwaters (Kottapuram to Kollam) form one of the major National Waterways of India (NW3).
• Biodiversity: Coastal wetlands and backwaters serve as breeding grounds for migratory birds (Kadalundi, Kumarakom).
• Economic Activities: Rice fields (Kuttanad, Kole Lands), fishing harbors (Neendakara, Munambam).
• Eastern Coastal Plain: A relatively wider coastal area between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.
• Extent: Mahanadi delta region to Kanyakumari (~1800 km).
• Formation: Result of depositional processes by peninsular rivers (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri).
• Type: An Emerged Coast.
• Divisions of Eastern Coastal Plain: Northern Circars and Coromandel Coast.
• Northern Circars: Mahanadi Delta to Krishna Delta. Includes Utkal Plain (Odisha) and Andhra Plain (Andhra Pradesh).
• Features: Mainly deltaic deposits.
• Lakes: Chilka Lake (largest in India) and Kolleru Lake.
• Ports: Fewer ports than the Western coast (Vishakhapatanam, Masulipatanam).
• Coromandel Coast: Krishna river delta to Kanyakumari. Includes Kaveri delta.
• Features: Fertile deltaic alluvium suitable for rice cultivation.
• Lakes: Pulikat Lake (where India's rocket launching station Sriharikota is located).
• Islands: Lakshadweep (Arabian Sea) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bay of Bengal).
• Lakshadweep Islands: Located 280–480 km from Kerala coast.
• Formation: Formed by coral reefs.
• Capital: Kavarati Island; Largest Island: Androth.
• Attractions: Coral sand beaches and Lagoons (shallow water separated from sea by sandbars/reefs).
• Occupations: Fishing (tuna), copra making, coir making, and tourism (scuba diving).
• Coral Reefs: Formed by the accumulation of calcium carbonate secreted by coral polyps. They grow in shallow, clear, tropical waters.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Volcanic islands in the Bay of Bengal.
• 10 Degree Channel: Separates Andaman from Nicobar Island.
• Barren Island: India's only active volcano (part of Nicobar Islands).
• Capital: Port Blair.
• Southernmost point: Indira Point (in Great Nicobar Island).
• Vegetation: Tropical Evergreen Forests (due to high rainfall).
• Erosional Coastal Landforms (by Sea Waves):
◦ Cliffs: Steep-sided land rising above sea level formed by continuous wave erosion.
◦ Sea Caves: Holes developed and enlarged in coastal rocks.
◦ Sea Arch: Arch-shaped landform where caves merge through a protruding rock.
◦ Sea Stack: A pillar detached from the shore, formed when the roof of a sea arch collapses.
• Depositional Coastal Landforms (by Sea Waves):
◦ Beaches: Temporary deposits of sand and gravel between high and low tide limits.
◦ Sand Bars: Temporary embankments of sand deposited parallel to the coast.
◦ Spit: A sand bar that extends from land to sea.
• Coastal Climate: Moderate climate due to the maritime effect (proximity to the sea).
• Land and Sea Breeze moderate the weather.
• Sea Breeze (Day): Air blows from the cooler sea (High Pressure) to the warmer land (Low Pressure).
• Land Breeze (Night): Air blows from the cooler land (High Pressure) to the warmer sea (Low Pressure).
• Monsoon Rainfall: Western coastal plains receive high rainfall from the Arabian Sea branch of the Southwest monsoon (hitting the Western Ghats).
• The Eastern coast (Coromandel) receives rainfall during the retreat of monsoon winds (October/November), known as 'Thulavarsham' in Kerala.
• Soil Types: Depositional soil is common.
◦ Western Coasts: Sandy soil, laterite soil, black clayey soil, peaty soil.
◦ Eastern Coasts: Mostly Alluvial soil (Coastal and Delta alluvial soil).
• Vegetation: Most areas converted to agriculture (coconut, rice).
• Mangroves: Plants growing in salt water marshes. The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in India. They protect coastal land from disasters like cyclones and Tsunami.
• Mineral Deposits: Iron ore, manganese, bauxite.
• Rare Earth Minerals: Monocyte (Uranium ore mineral) found in coastal black sand (Chavara, Odisha, Tamilnadu).
• Economic Activities: Agriculture and fishing are the main activities. Also mineral-based industries, shipbuilding, and tourism.
• Population: Densely populated due to favorable factors (climate, agriculture, employment). Three metro cities (Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkota) developed on coastal plains.
• Challenges Faced: Natural disasters (Tsunami, cyclone), sea level rise due to global climate change, coastal erosion, and sea turbulence.
• Sustainable development requires resource planning, conservation strategy, and community participation.

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SCERT Based Questions & Answers (Chapter 8)

SCERT Question/Activity (Derived)	Concept/Answer Summary
List factors suitable for settlement in coastal plains.	Plain land, favourable climate, availability of water, transportation development, mineral deposits, employment opportunities (fishing, agriculture, tourism).
Why are ports less along the Eastern coast compared to the Western coast?	The Eastern coast is an emerged coast, characterized by deposition and deltas, making it generally shallow and less suitable for natural harbors compared to the submerged Western coast.
What is the reason for getting high amount of rainfall in the Western coast during Southwest monsoon?	The Arabian Sea branch of the Southwest monsoon winds strikes the steep Western Ghats, causing heavy orographic rainfall along the narrow Western Coastal Plain.
Why is population density low in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands?	The islands are isolated, geographically difficult (volcanic, high rainfall), and many are inhabited primarily by indigenous tribes, limiting development and accessibility compared to the mainland coastal regions.
Identify the landforms created by wave action.	Erosional forms: Cliffs, Sea Caves, Sea Arches, Sea Stacks. Depositional forms: Beaches, Sand Bars, Spit, Lagoons.

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Most Important Questions (Chapter 8)

1. Differentiate between the Western Coastal Plain and the Eastern Coastal Plain based on key characteristics.

• Western: Narrow, Submerged Coast, major feature is Kayals (backwaters), receives high SW monsoon rainfall.

• Eastern: Wider, Emerged Coast, major feature is river deltas (Mahanadi, Kaveri), receives rainfall during retreating monsoon.

2. Describe the climate of coastal regions and explain the formation of Land and Sea Breeze.

• Climate is moderate due to the maritime effect.

• Sea Breeze (Day): Air moves from cooler sea (HP) to warmer land (LP).

• Land Breeze (Night): Air moves from cooler land (HP) to warmer sea (LP).

3. Discuss the importance and features of Coral Islands (Lakshadweep) and Volcanic Islands (Andaman and Nicobar).

• Lakshadweep (Coral): Formed by coral polyps, features lagoons and coral reefs; economic activities include tuna fishing and tourism.

• A&N (Volcanic): Separated by 10 Degree Channel; home to Barren Island (active volcano); covered in Tropical Evergreen Forests.

4. Explain the significance of Mangrove forests in the coastal ecosystem.

• Mangroves grow in salt water marshes. They are crucial for biodiversity, serving as breeding grounds for marine life. They act as natural protectors of the coastal land against natural disasters like cyclones and Tsunami.

5. List the major challenges faced by the coastal regions of India.

• Natural disasters (Tsunami, cyclone), sea level rise due to global climate change, coastal erosion, and sea turbulence.