Part I

Chapter 1: Invasion and Resistance

Key Concepts and Notes

• Motivations for European Trade with Asia:
  • Advances in shipbuilding and sailing.
  • Growth in geographical knowledge, including improvements in compass and map making.
  • Travel writings providing knowledge of new wealth.
  • Market demand for Asian products like pepper.
  • The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, which disrupted land trade routes.
• The Portuguese in India:
  • The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea.
  • Vasco da Gama reached Kappad near Kozhikode in 1498, paving the way for European dominance.
  • They faced resistance from the Zamorin and the Kunjali Marakkars (naval chiefs of the Zamorin).
  • They established the first European Fort in India, Fort Manuel, in Kochi.
  • Contributions: Introduced crops like cashew, papaya, guava, and pineapple; popularized printing technology and art forms such as Chavittunatakam and Margamkali.
• The Dutch in India:
  • The Dutch, from Holland (Netherlands), came after the Portuguese.
  • In 1741, Marthandavarma defeated the Dutch at the Battle of Colachel, marking the first time an Indian ruler defeated a European power and leading to the decline of Dutch supremacy in India.
  • Their greatest contribution was the compilation of Hortus Malabaricus, a book detailing 742 medicinal plants of Kerala.
• The British and French:
  • The wars fought between the British and the French for dominance in South India were known as the Carnatic Wars.
  • The English East India Company established political dominance in India with the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
  • The Battle of Buxar in 1764 strengthened the Company's administrative presence, granting them the right to collect taxes in Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.
• British Subjugation of Princely States:
  • The British subjugated states through wars (Anglo-Mysore, Anglo-Maratha, Anglo-Sikh Wars) and diplomacy (Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine of Lapse).
• British Tax Policies and Their Impact:
  • Permanent Land Revenue Settlement (1793): Implemented in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
  • Ryotwari System (1820): Implemented in South India and Deccan, where taxes were collected directly from farmers.
  • Mahalwari System (1822): Treated the village as a unit for tax collection in North/Central India and Punjab.
  • Consequences: Farmers became indebted to moneylenders, were forced to grow cash crops (indigo, cotton) instead of food crops, leading to debt and food shortages. The introduction of machine-made products from Britain led to the decline of Indian handicrafts.
• Early Rebellions Against the British:
  • Sannyasi-Fakir Rebellion: Poor peasants and laborers fought the British with the support of sannyasis and fakirs.
  • Neelam Peasant Revolt (1859): In Bengal, farmers revolted against British planters who forced them to cultivate indigo at below-market prices.
  • Santhal Rebellion (1855): Led by Sidhu and Kanhu, the Santhal tribe fought against exploitation by landlords and moneylenders.
  • Munda Rebellion (‘Ulgulan’): Led by Birsa Munda against British exploitation and land grabbing.
  • Veerapandya Kattabomman: A Poligar who fought the British over increasing taxes.
  • Attingal Revolt (1721): The first organized popular rebellion against the British in Kerala, sparked by interference in the pepper trade.
  • Kittur Rani Chennamma: Fought the British after they annexed her state under the Doctrine of Lapse.
• The Revolt of 1857 (First War of Independence):
  • Causes:
    • Subsidiary Alliance Policy (Lord Wellesley): Restricted princely states' autonomy and forced them to maintain a Company army.
    • Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): Annexed states without a male heir.
    • Dissatisfaction among Indian soldiers due to low pay and poor treatment.
    • The immediate trigger was the rumor that new Enfield gun cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat.
  • Events: The rebellion started in Meerut. The rebels proclaimed the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India.
  • Outcome: The rebellion was suppressed, but it led to the end of the English East India Company’s rule, and the administration of India was transferred directly to the British Queen.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. Find out and list the impact of Portuguese contact in India in different areas.

   • Political field: The regions of Kochi, Goa, and Daman and Diu came under the rule of the Portuguese.
   • Agriculture sector: Cashew, papaya, guava, and pineapple were introduced.
   • Knowledge sector: Printing technology was popularized.
   • Cultural sector: Art forms such as Chavittunatakam and Margamkali were popularized, and a European style of construction was introduced.

2. Identify the plant in the picture from Hortus Malabaricus.

   • The source does not explicitly name the plant in the picture, but Hortus Malabaricus contains information about 742 medicinal plants of Kerala.

3. Discuss how the Company attained dominance in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta and interfered in the administration of these territories.

   • Madras: Ceded to the British in 1639 by the native king Damarla Venkitadri Nayaka, with the condition that he would receive half of the toll revenue.
   • Bombay: Gifted to the British King Charles II in 1662 upon his marriage to the Portuguese princess Catherine. It was later handed over to the English East India Company.
   • Calcutta: The British built Fort William in 1698 around three villages (Sutanuti, Kalikata, and Gobindapur), and this area grew into the town of Calcutta.
   • After gaining dominance in these centers, the Company began to interfere in their administration.

4. Discuss how the trade laws helped to exploit the colonies.

   • The British government turned the colonies into a monopoly for sourcing raw materials and selling manufactured goods.
   • Goods could only be transported between colonies on British ships or ships of the colonies.
   • Certain goods like wool and tobacco could only be sent to Europe via England, and goods from Europe could only be imported via England.
   • The Stamp Act of 1765 imposed an additional tax by requiring legal documents and pamphlets to be marked with a stamp.

5. Discuss the plight of the people of Bengal at that time from the novel Anandamath and the circumstances that led to it.

   • The people suffered from a severe famine when the rains failed and crops dried up.
   • The government continued to collect taxes, forcing people to sell their possessions, including cattle, tools, and even the doors of their houses.
   • Villagers resorted to eating grass, leaves, and animals like rats and cats to survive.
   • Diseases like plague and smallpox spread widely.
   • These circumstances were caused by the famine, which was worsened by the English East India Company's refusal to provide relief while continuing to collect taxes.

6. Complete the flow chart by analysing the revolts that took place in India against the British.

   • Anti-British revolts included the Sannyasi-Fakir rebellion, Santhal rebellion, Munda rebellion, popular rebellions, peasants’ rebellions, Poligar rebellions, and the Kittoor rebellion.

7. Discuss how the Indian princely states were captured by the British with the Subsidiary Alliance Policy and the Doctrine of Lapse.

   • Subsidiary Alliance Policy: Princely states had to keep a permanent unit of the Company’s army, bear all its expenses, avoid alliances with other European powers, consult the British Governor-General before taking action, and accommodate a British Resident in their court.
   • Doctrine of Lapse: This policy abolished a king’s right to adopt an heir. If a ruler died without a male heir, the princely state would automatically be annexed by the English East India Company. Many princely states were captured under these two policies.

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Chapter 2: Towards the Emergence of the National Movement

Key Concepts and Notes

• Rise of Nationalism: In the second half of the 19th century, a sense of unity emerged among Indians, known as Nationalism, fueled by a strong anti-British sentiment.
• Factors Contributing to Nationalism:
  • Economic Exploitation: Dadabhai Naoroji’s Drain Theory, presented in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, explained how Britain was draining India's wealth.
  • Western Education: Educated Indians became conscious of democratic values like freedom and civil rights, leading them to question British rule. English became a common language for communication.
  • Literature and Newspapers: Writers like Dinabandhu Mitra and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee instilled nationalism. Raja Ram Mohan Roy pioneered journalism with newspapers like Sambad Kaumudi. The British enacted the Vernacular Press Act to control critical newspapers.
  • Social Reform Movements: Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Brahma Samaj), Jyotirao Phule (Satyashodhak Samaj), and Pandita Ramabai (Arya Mahila Samaj) worked to eliminate social evils, boosting Indian self-confidence.
  • Transport and Communication: Railways, the postal system, and the telegraph, built for British interests, helped people travel and communicate, fostering national unity.
• Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC):
  • Early political organizations were confined to specific provinces.
  • The INC was formed in Bombay in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume and W. C. Banerjee to foster national unity and organize the people.
• Partition of Bengal and the Swadeshi Movement:
  • Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal in 1905 as part of the British 'divide and rule' policy to weaken the nationalist movement.
  • This led to the Swadeshi Movement, which promoted the use of Indian goods and the boycott of British goods, emphasizing self-reliance.
  • The movement saw the establishment of Indian textile mills, soap factories, and the Tata Steel Factory. It brought women and students into a political movement for the first time.
• Moderates vs. Extremists:
  • Moderates (e.g., Gopalakrishna Gokhale) favored peaceful struggles through meetings and resolutions.
  • Extremists (e.g., Bal Gangadhara Tilak) adopted revolutionary methods like swadeshi and boycott, believing freedom required a strong, open struggle.
  • The ideological split occurred at the Surat Congress session in 1907.
• Other Key Developments:
  • The All India Muslim League was founded in 1906.
  • The Minto-Morley Reforms (1909) provided separate electorates for Muslims, furthering the 'divide and rule' policy.
  • The Home Rule League, led by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak, sought self-government during World War I.
  • The Lucknow Pact (1916) saw the reunification of Moderates and Extremists, and an agreement between the INC and the Muslim League to work together.
  • Secret revolutionary organizations like the Anusheelan Samiti and Ghadar Party resorted to armed struggle.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. How did western education help in developing nationalism among Indians?

   • English-educated Indians became conscious of democratic values such as freedom, equality, and civil rights.
   • They began to question how their country came under British rule.
   • English became a common language for the exchange of ideas among people from different regions.
   • It helped Indians understand the country’s economic and social weaknesses, leading to the rise of nationalism.

2. Prepare a short description on ‘The Role of Press in Developing Nationalism.’

   • Many newspapers in English and regional languages emerged, criticizing British policies and exploitation.
   • The press fostered a critical mindset against British rule.
   • Pioneers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy started influential newspapers.
   • Newspapers were crucial in spreading modern ideas and nationalism until the British tried to control them with acts like the Vernacular Press Act.

3. Prepare a note analysing the activities of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotirao Phule and Pandita Ramabai.

   • Raja Ram Mohan Roy: He initiated social reforms, helped abolish Sati, promoted modern education, argued for women's inheritance rights, and founded the Brahma Samaj.
   • Jyotirao Phule: He fought for the rights of women and lower-caste people, established the Satyashodhak Samaj, worked for widow remarriage, and established educational institutions for women and Dalits.
   • Pandita Ramabai: She fought against child marriage, started schools for widows and girls, established the Arya Mahila Samaj, and started Sharada Sadan and Mukti Mission for women's rehabilitation.

4. Discuss and list the limitations of early political movements.

   • These movements were not all-India in nature; their activities were limited to certain provinces.
   • They were led by the rich and the middle class and failed to create political awareness among the masses.

5. The early objectives of the Indian National Congress helped to develop a sense of nationalism in India. Discuss.

   • The INC's objectives were to foster friendly relations among political activists, strengthen a sense of national unity irrespective of caste or religion, present common needs to the British, and organize public opinion. These goals helped build a foundation for a unified national identity.

6. What was the real motive behind the partition of Bengal?

   • The real motive was to divide Bengal, a stronghold of the nationalist movement, in order to weaken the freedom struggle.

7. List the facts that can be gleaned about the Swadeshi Movement from this description.

   • Wedding presents made of foreign materials were returned.
   • Priests objected to officiating ceremonies that used foreign items.
   • Guests refused to attend celebrations where foreign salt and sugar were used.

8. Compare the working methods of the moderates with that of the extremists in the Indian National Movement and prepare a note.

   • Moderates: Propagated ideas through peaceful, bloodless methods like meetings, speeches, and resolutions. They were not ready for an open struggle.
   • Extremists: Adopted revolutionary methods like swadeshi and boycott, believing that freedom could only be achieved through a strong, open struggle.

9. The Partition of Bengal and the Minto-Morley Reforms are examples of the British policy of ‘divide and rule’. Record your response to this statement.

   • This statement is accurate. The British used these measures to weaken the nationalist movement by creating divisions. The Partition of Bengal divided the province along religious lines (Muslim-majority East Bengal and Hindu-majority West Bengal). The Minto-Morley reforms furthered this division by providing separate electorates for Muslims.

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Chapter 3: Movements of the Earth: Rotation and Revolution

Key Concepts and Notes

• Rotation:
  • The movement of the Earth on its axis from west to east, taking approximately 24 hours.
  • Effects: The occurrence of day and night, and the Coriolis effect.
  • Circle of Illumination: The imaginary line that demarcates day and night.
  • Coriolis Effect: Causes freely moving bodies (like winds and ocean currents) to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere (Ferrel's Law).
• Revolution:
  • The Earth's orbit around the Sun in an elliptical path, taking 365¼ days.
  • Leap Year: Occurs every four years to account for the extra ¼ day, making the year 366 days long.
  • Perihelion: The point when the Earth is closest to the Sun (approx. January 3rd).
  • Aphelion: The point when the Earth is farthest from the Sun (approx. July 4th).
• Seasons and the Apparent Movement of the Sun:
  • Seasons are caused by the revolution of the Earth and the tilt of its axis.
  • Apparent Movement of the Sun: The perceived shift of the Sun’s vertical rays between the Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S).
  • Equinoxes (March 21 & September 23): The Sun’s rays fall vertically on the Equator, resulting in equal day and night duration everywhere.
  • Summer Solstice (June 21): The Sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer, causing the longest day in the Northern Hemisphere. The North Pole experiences 24 hours of daylight.
  • Winter Solstice (December 22): The Sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn, causing the longest day in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Pole experiences 24 hours of darkness.
  • Uttarayanam: The Sun's northward apparent movement (from Tropic of Capricorn to Tropic of Cancer).
  • Dakshinayanam: The Sun's southward apparent movement (from Tropic of Cancer to Tropic of Capricorn).
• Time Calculation:
  • Local Time: Traditionally calculated based on the overhead position of the Sun.
  • Standard Time: Calculated based on a country's selected Standard Meridian (usually a multiple of 7½° longitude).
  • One degree (1°) of longitude corresponds to a time difference of 4 minutes.
  • Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The local time at the Prime Meridian (0° longitude). Time is added when moving east and subtracted when moving west.
  • Time Zones: The world is divided into 24 time zones, each covering 15° of longitude.
  • Indian Standard Time (IST): Based on the 82½° East longitude. It is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
  • International Date Line: Follows the 180° longitude. Travelers crossing it westward add a day, and those crossing it eastward subtract a day.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. Complete the table by finding out the reasons behind these facts.

   • Fact 1: The Sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
     • Reason: The direction of the Earth’s rotation is from west to east.
   • Fact 2: Freely moving bodies get deflected in their direction in both hemispheres.
     • Reason: The Coriolis Effect, which is caused by the Earth’s rotation.

2. On which latitude do the Sun’s rays fall vertically? On which days does this happen?

   • The Sun’s rays fall vertically on the Equator.
   • This happens on March 21 and September 23.

3. What are the changes that happen to the length of day in the southern hemisphere on the summer solstice (June 21)?

   • On June 21, the Southern Hemisphere experiences winter. The length of the day decreases as one moves south from the equator, and the South Pole experiences 24 hours of darkness.

4. What will the duration of the night in the southern polar regions when there is daylight for six months in the northern polar regions?

   • When the northern polar region has continuous daylight for six months (March to September), the southern polar region will have continuous darkness (night) for six months.

5. What are the changes that happen to the length of the day in the northern hemisphere on the Winter Solstice (December 22)?

   • On December 22, the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter. The length of the day decreases as one moves north from the equator, and the North Pole experiences continuous darkness.

6. Complete the table (Apparent position of the Sun, Date, Day, Length of day/night).

   • Equator (March 21 - Spring Equinox): Length of day and night are equal.
   • Equator (September 23 - Autumnal Equinox): Length of day and night are equal.
   • Tropic of Cancer (June 21 - Summer Solstice): Longest day, shortest night.
   • Tropic of Capricorn (December 22 - Winter Solstice): Longest day, shortest night.

7. What change happens to the apparent movement of the Sun when it is summer season in the northern hemisphere?

   • During the summer season in the Northern Hemisphere (from June 21 to September 23), the apparent position of the Sun shifts southward from the Tropic of Cancer towards the Equator.

8. What will the season be in the northern hemisphere when it is autumn in the southern hemisphere?

   • When it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, the Northern Hemisphere experiences Spring.

9. Which season is experienced in the southern hemisphere from 23rd September to 22nd December?

   • The Southern Hemisphere experiences Spring during this period.

10. Name the season in the southern hemisphere when the Sun's apparent position shifts from the Tropic of Capricorn to the equator.

    • The season is Summer in the Southern Hemisphere.

11. What is the time difference between Greenwich Meridian (0° longitude) and Indian Standard Meridian (82½° East)?

    • The time difference is calculated as 82.5 degrees × 4 minutes/degree = 330 minutes, which is 5 hours and 30 minutes.

    Chapter 4: Basic Economic Problems and the Economy

    Key Concepts and Notes

12. Human Needs:
    • Basic needs: Essential for survival (food, clothing, shelter).
    • Gratifying needs: Make life more comfortable (luxury cars, expensive jewelry).
    • Needs are diverse, innumerable, and vary with time, place, and individuals.
13. The Three Basic Economic Problems:
    1. What to produce? Prioritizing which goods and services to produce and in what quantity.
    2. How to produce? Choosing the method of production (technology and factors of production).
       • Labour Intensive Technique: Uses more labor and less capital; eco-friendly but slower.
       • Capital Intensive Technique: Uses more capital and less labor; relies on technology and is more productive.
    3. For whom to produce? Deciding how goods and services are distributed among the people. The value of production is distributed as rent, wages, interest, and profit.
14. Types of Economies:
    • Capitalist Economy: Factors of production are owned by individuals. The main aim is profit, with limited government intervention and consumer sovereignty.
    • Socialist Economy: Factors of production are owned and controlled by the government. The main aim is social welfare, using centralized planning to reduce inequality.
    • Mixed Economy: Combines features of capitalist and socialist economies, with a co-existing private and public sector. It balances profitability and social welfare. India has a mixed economy.
15. Key Economic Thinkers:
    • Adam Smith: Economics as the science of wealth.
    • Alfred Marshall: Economics as a science dealing with welfare.
    • Lionel Robbins: Economics as the study of the relationship between human wants and limited resources.
    • David Ricardo: Trade between two countries benefits both.
    • Karl Marx: Developed the ‘Theory of Surplus Value,’ arguing labor is the basis of production, but capitalists keep most of the value.
    • J. M. Keynes: Argued for government intervention to solve economic problems.
    • Gandhiji: Envisioned an economy based on self-sufficiency, decentralization, and rural industries to alleviate inequality.
    • Amartya Kumar Sen: Emphasized Welfare Economics, focusing on education, health, and human rights.
    • Abhijit Vinayak Banerjee: Awarded the Nobel Prize for his experimental approach to global poverty eradication.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. List the basic and gratifying needs in our life.

   • Basic needs: Food, clothing, and shelter.
   • Gratifying needs: House, phone, car, expensive jewellery, and costly dresses.

2. What factors of production are mostly used here? (Relating to chapati making illustrations).

   • In the manual method, the main factor of production is labor.
   • In the machine-based method, the main factor of production is capital.

3. List the production activities in your area using labour intensive technique and capital intensive technique.

   • Labour intensive technique: (Examples) Handloom weaving, handicraft making, small-scale vegetable farming.
   • Capital intensive technique: (Examples) Manufacturing using automated machinery, large-scale mechanized agriculture, car manufacturing.

4. Identify and write down with which basic economic problem each situation is connected.

   • Situation 1 (Deciding what to start): Connected to What to produce?
   • Situation 2 (Discussing the right proportion of laborers and machinery): Connected to How to produce?
   • Situation 3 (Selling surplus and distributing profit): Connected to For whom to produce?

5. Find out which of the ideas given below are related to the ideas of different economists.

   • Trade between two countries can benefit both: David Ricardo.
   • The basis of production is the labour of the workers: Karl Marx.
   • Government intervention is needed to solve economic problems: J. M. Keynes.

6. Find the missing ones (Indian Economists).

   • Chanakya: Efficient tax system.
   • Mahatma Gandhi: Self-sufficiency, Decentralisation.
   • Dadabhai Naoroji: Drain Theory.
   • Amartya Kumar Sen: Welfare Economics/Economic progress.
   • Abhijit Vinayak Banerjee: Poverty Eradication.

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Chapter 5: Constitution of India: Rights and Duties

Key Concepts and Notes

• Preamble: Promises to protect justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for all citizens.
• Fundamental Rights (Part III of the Constitution): Essential human rights that are protected and enforced by the state.
  • Influences: Magna Carta (1215), US Bill of Rights (1789), values from India's freedom struggle.
  • The Six Fundamental Rights:
    1. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18): Ensures equality before the law and prohibits discrimination. Abolishes untouchability and titles.
    2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22): Includes freedom of speech, assembly, movement, and profession, as well as the right to life and personal liberty.
    3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24): Prohibits slavery, human trafficking, and child labor. The Right to Education Act (2009) ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14.
    4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28): Allows everyone to profess, practice, and propagate any religion.
    5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30): Enables minorities to preserve their culture, language, and script and establish their own educational institutions.
    6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): Allows individuals to approach the Supreme Court or High Courts to restore violated fundamental rights. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar called it the "heart and soul" of the Constitution. The courts can issue Writs (Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, etc.) to enforce these rights.
• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) (Part IV): Guidelines for the government to establish a welfare state by ensuring socio-economic justice. They are not enforceable by courts.
• Fundamental Duties (FDs) (Part IVA): Added in 1976, these are duties citizens must fulfill, such as obeying the Constitution, promoting harmony, and protecting the environment.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. What were the factors that influenced the inclusion of Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of India?

   • Denial of rights experienced during colonial rule.
   • The values upheld by the freedom struggle.
   • The ideas of the Indian Renaissance Movement.
   • The rights mentioned in the constitutions of other countries and various Bills of Rights.

2. Have you noticed any violations of the right to equality?

   • Violations may include discrimination based on caste or religion, or a lack of equal access to public places and employment opportunities.

3. What other exploits against children have you noticed?

   • Exploitations include child labor, human trafficking, and forced labor.

4. Organise a discussion on the topic ‘Religious Freedom Strengthens Indian Secularism.’

   • The Constitution allows everyone the freedom to profess and practice any religion, guaranteeing equal treatment for all religions. Since the state respects all faiths equally, this freedom reinforces the secular nature of India.

5. Why is the right to constitutional remedies considered the most important fundamental right?

   • It is crucial because it provides the mechanism for protecting all other fundamental rights. It ensures that if any right is violated, an individual can seek its restoration through the courts. This is why Dr. Ambedkar called it the "heart and soul" of the Constitution.

6. What aspects of social life do the directive principles of state policy touch upon?

   • They touch upon socio-economic justice, people’s welfare, international peace, environmental conservation, equal pay for equal work, and care for young children.

7. Identify the differences between fundamental rights and directive principles.

   • Fundamental Rights: Limit government power, protect individual rights, are enforceable by courts, and are difficult to amend.
   • Directive Principles: Compel the government to act, ensure societal welfare, are not enforceable by courts, and can be implemented through simple legislation.

8. What other duties do Indian citizens have according to the Constitution?

   • Citizens must uphold the sovereignty of India, defend the country, promote harmony, preserve our cultural heritage, protect the environment, develop a scientific temper, safeguard public property, and abjure violence. Parents must also provide educational opportunities for their children (age 6-14).

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Chapter 6: Resource Utilisation and Sustainability

Key Concepts and Notes

• Resources: Anything that is environmentally available, technologically accessible, and culturally acceptable to meet human needs.
• Classification of Resources:
  • Natural Resources: Obtained from nature (e.g., air, minerals).
  • Man-made Resources: Created by humans (e.g., roads, machinery).
  • Renewable Resources: Do not deplete with use (e.g., sunlight, wind).
  • Non-Renewable Resources: Decrease in quantity with use (e.g., coal, petroleum, metals).
• Minerals: Naturally occurring substances with specific chemical and physical properties. Ore is the raw form of a mineral.
  • Metallic Minerals: Contain metal (e.g., iron ore, bauxite). Classified as Ferrous (containing iron) and Non-ferrous (not containing iron).
  • Non-Metallic Minerals: Do not contain metal (e.g., coal, graphite, clay).
• Iron and Steel Industry: Called a basic industry because it provides raw materials for other industries. The modern industry in India began with the Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) in 1907.
• Industrial Growth Factors:
  • Geographical: Availability of raw materials, climate, topography.
  • Non-geographical: Labor, capital, market, government policies, transportation.
• Consequences of Industrial Activity:
  • Pollution: Undesirable change in air, water, or soil.
  • Resource Depletion: Unscientific use leads to loss of resources like forests and soil fertility.
  • Regional Inequality, Migration, and Urbanisation.
• Conservation and Sustainability:
  • Conservation: The judicious use of resources to ensure their availability for future generations.
  • Sustainable Development: Meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It focuses on balancing economic growth and environmental welfare through recycling, reducing, and reusing.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. For what purposes is gold being used?

   • Gold is used in making jewelry, electronic goods, and in pharmaceuticals.

2. Why can’t all resources be used the same way?

   • Because resources are not available everywhere, and some non-renewable resources run out with use.

3. Classify renewable and non-renewable resources from the given list (water, metals, solar-energy, coal, wind, petroleum).

   • Renewable: Water, solar energy, wind.
   • Non-Renewable: Metals, coal, petroleum.

4. Identify the minerals containing metal from the list provided (petroleum, iron ore, bauxite).

   • The metallic minerals are iron ore and bauxite.

5. Identify the uses of the given metallic and non-metallic minerals.

   • Iron: Construction.
   • Gold: Jewelry, electronics, pharmaceuticals.
   • Copper: Electrical wiring, coins, utensils.
   • Graphite: Pencil making.
   • Petrol: Fuel.
   • Clay: Pottery, ceramics.

6. ‘Iron industry is the foundation of the Indian economy.’ Discuss.

   • The iron and steel industry is a basic industry, providing raw materials for other sectors. It supports other industries, generates employment, contributes to national income, and its consumption is a measure of a country's industrial growth.

7. Discuss the issues related to pollution and prepare awareness materials.

   • Air Pollution: Toxic gases from industries threaten health and nature.
   • Water Pollution: Waste pollutes water bodies, harming aquatic life and humans.
   • Soil Pollution: Waste alters soil structure, affecting agriculture.
   • Noise Pollution: Excessive noise affects physical and mental health.

8. Discuss activities you can do in school to conserve resources.

   • Conservation activities include recycling, water and energy conservation, minimizing usage, and reusing materials.

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Chapter 7: Media and Social Reflections

Key Concepts and Notes

• Mass Media: Forms of communication that reach many people simultaneously (e.g., newspapers, radio, TV, Internet).
• Types of Media:
  • Print Media (Newspapers, magazines): Provides comprehensive news but communication is one-way.
  • Broadcast Media (Radio, TV): Conveys ideas to a large audience, but communication is one-way.
  • Digital Media (Websites, online news): Allows live reports and two-way interaction.
  • Social Media: Online platforms for creating and sharing content, influencing public opinion and movements.
• Traditional vs. New Media:
  • Traditional (Print, Broadcast): One-way communication, limited interaction.
  • New (Digital, Social): Two-way interaction, greater participation.
• Media's Influence:
  • Socialisation: The media is an agent of socialization, teaching how to behave in society.
  • Public Opinion: The media shapes public opinion, especially during elections. Spreading fake news is punishable under the IT Act 2000.
  • Consumption Behaviour: Advertising influences what people buy.
  • Stereotypes: The media can shape and reinforce generalized beliefs about groups of people.
  • Social Problems: The media brings social issues to public attention, often accelerating solutions (e.g., through hashtag campaigns).
• Digital Etiquette: Proper and respectful behavior in digital spaces. It promotes respectful communication, provides clarity, helps form positive online communities, and reduces cybercrime.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. Complete the list indicating what is included in different media.

   • Print media: News, articles, literary works.
   • Broadcast media (Radio/TV): Announcements, weather forecasts, entertainment, cinema, discussions.
   • Digital media (Internet): Online news, e-commerce, blogs, interactive sharing.

2. How do you convey your opinions about radio and television programmes?

   • Through letters and phone calls.

3. What kind of support do social media provide for your learning needs?

   • Social media allows for sharing learning resources and facilitates social interaction and communication.

4. Find and add more problems that excessive use of social media creates.

   • It can negatively affect students’ learning and health, create distance in personal relationships, and lead to fraud and cybercrime.

5. Discuss what can be done to identify misinformation in the media.

   • Verify the source of information, check multiple reliable sources, and critically evaluate if the content is biased.

6. What preconceptions (stereotypes) are listed here? Are they factually correct?

   • Preconceptions: Men are the breadwinners; employed women neglect family; fairness creams enhance beauty; women belong in the kitchen.
   • Are they factually correct? No, these are generalized beliefs that are not necessarily true.

7. What are the benefits of practising digital etiquette?

   • It enables respectful communication, promotes clarity, helps form positive online communities, reduces cybercrimes, and supports digital literacy.

     Part II

     Chapter 8: National Movement and Kerala

     Key Concepts and Notes

   • Early Resistance against the British in Kerala:
     • Pazhassi Raja (Kottayam): Fought the British after they denied him the power to collect taxes. He waged Guerrilla warfare in Wayanad with local support but was killed in 1805.
     • Velu Thampi Dalawa (Travancore): Clashed with the British Resident over tax demands. He issued the Kundara Proclamation (1809), calling for an armed struggle, and later committed suicide to avoid capture.
     • Paliath Achan (Kochi): Joined Velu Thampi against British interference but was exiled.
     • Kurichyar Rebellion (1812): The Kurichyar and Kurumbrar tribes of Wayanad revolted against British policies like land seizure and demanding taxes in money.
   • Social Reform Movements in Kerala:
     • Fought against social evils like untouchability and caste discrimination.
     • Key Reformers:
       • Vaikunta Swamikal: Founded Samatva Samaj.
       • Sree Narayana Guru: Founded SNDP Yogam; proclaimed 'become enlightened through knowledge'.
       • Chattampi Swamikal: Opposed the caste system.
       • Ayyankali: Founded Sadhujana Paripalana Sangham; led the Villuvandi and Kallumala strikes for the rights of oppressed sections.
       • Vakkom Abdul Khader Moulavi: Worked for Muslim cultural renaissance.
       • V. T. Bhattathiripad: A reformer of the Namboodiri community.
       • Mannath Padmanabhan: Founded the Nair Service Society (NSS).
   • Struggles for Civil Rights:
     • Upper Cloth Agitation (1859): A struggle for the right of Channar women in Travancore to wear upper cloth.
     • Vaikom Satyagraha (1924): A struggle for the freedom to walk on the roads around the Vaikom temple, led by T. K. Madhavan and K. Kelappan. The Savarna Jatha was organized by Mannath Padmanabhan in support.
     • Guruvayur Satyagraha (1931): Demanded temple entry for all Hindus, led by K. Kelappan.
     • Temple Entry Proclamation (1936): Issued by the ruler of Travancore, opening temples to all Hindus.
   • National Movement in Kerala:
     • Malabar: The movement was most active here, led by the Malabar District Congress Committee.
     • Salt Satyagraha: Centered in Payyannur (led by K. Kelappan) and Kozhikode.
     • Malabar Rebellion (1921): An anti-British and anti-landlord movement that merged with the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements. The Wagon Massacre was a tragic incident where prisoners died in a sealed goods train.
     • Quit India Movement (1942): The Keezhariyur bomb case occurred in Kozhikode.
     • Kochi: The Electricity Strike (1936) was a popular uprising in Thrissur. The Kochi Rajya Praja Mandal was formed for responsible government.
     • Travancore: Early movements included the Malayali Memorial and Ezhava Memorial, demanding representation in government jobs. The Travancore State Congress agitated for responsible government. The Punnapra-Vayalar Struggle (1946) was waged against the Diwan, C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer.
   • Formation of Aikya Kerala (United Kerala):
     • The movement aimed to unite Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar into a single state.
     • Travancore and Kochi merged to form Thiru-Kochi in 1949.
     • The state of Kerala was formed on November 1, 1956, by merging Malabar with Thiru-Kochi.

   SCERT Questions and Answers

8. Complete the table given below (Resistance, Area, Situation).

   • Pazhassi Rebellion: Kottayam, Wayanad; British intervention in internal affairs.
   • Velu Thampi Dalawa's struggle: Travancore; British interference and demand for tax arrears.
   • Paliath Achan's struggle: Kochi; British Resident's interference in internal affairs.
   • Kurichyar riot: Wayanad; Tax hikes and British measures against tribal farming.

9. What was the situation that prompted Paliath Achan and Velu Thampi Dalawa to fight together against the British?

   • Both faced similar interference from the British Resident Macaulay in the internal affairs of their respective states (Kochi and Travancore). Macaulay's demand for immediate payment of tax arrears from Travancore and his sheltering of Paliath Achan's enemy solidified their alliance.

10. Examine the circumstances that led the tribal people of Wayanad to revolt.

    • The British considered them enemies for supporting Pazhassi Raja. They seized tribal lands, banned traditional farming, and demanded tax payments in money instead of goods.

11. Why did the farmers protest against the landlords and the British government?

    • They protested against the British government’s high tax policies and the exploitation and eviction carried out by landlords.

12. Complete the table given below (Struggles for Civil Rights, Situation).

    • Upper Cloth Agitation: Ban on Channar women wearing upper cloth.
    • Vaikom Satyagraha: Ban on people considered "inferior" walking on the roads around Vaikom temple.
    • Guruvayur Satyagraha: Ban on entry for all Hindus to the Guruvayur temple.
    • Paliyam Satyagraha: Prohibition of marginalized sections from walking on the road in front of the Paliath Achan's residence.

13. What were the action programmes of the Civil Disobedience Movement in Malabar?

    • The main action was the Salt Satyagraha in Payyannur and Kozhikode. Other programs included the boycott of foreign clothes, picketing of liquor shops, and the Khadi campaign.

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Chapter 9: Democracy: Meaning and Scope

Key Concepts and Notes

• Democracy: A system of government and a value built on Liberty, Equality, Justice, and Rights. The word comes from the Greek Demos (people) and Kratos (power).
• Types of Democracy:
  • Direct Democracy: People directly participate in governance (e.g., ancient Athens). Devices include Referendum, Plebiscite, and Recall.
  • Indirect (Representative) Democracy: People elect representatives to govern.
    • Parliamentary System: The executive is controlled by the legislature. The head of state is nominal, while the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers hold real power.
    • Presidential System: The executive and legislature are separate. The President is directly elected and holds all executive power.
• Core Values of Democracy:
  • Freedom (Liberty): The absence of restrictions and the opportunity to develop one's capabilities.
  • Equality: Recognizing all people as valuable, regardless of discrimination. Includes Political, Social, and Economic equality.
  • Justice: Giving equal and due consideration to all individuals.
  • Rights: Legally recognized claims essential for a dignified life.
• Pillars of Democracy:
  • Rule of Law: Everyone is equal before the law.
  • Separation of Powers: Division of power among the legislature, executive, and judiciary to prevent tyranny.
  • Secularism: Separation of state and religion.
  • Political Parties: Essential for creating political awareness and contesting elections.
  • The Opposition: Plays a vital role by criticizing the government and suggesting alternatives.
• Democracy in India:
  • India adopted a Parliamentary System with a federal structure.
  • Universal Adult Franchise: All citizens aged 18 and above have the right to vote.
  • Election Commission: A constitutional body for conducting free and fair elections.
  • Independent Judiciary: The judiciary is independent, and the Supreme Court has the power of Judicial Review to annul unconstitutional laws.
  • Pluralism: Accommodating diverse religious, ethnic, and cultural groups.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. Complete the table by comparing Direct Democracy with Indirect Democracy.

   • Direct Democracy: The people rule directly.
   • Indirect Democracy: The people rule through elected representatives.

2. What are the different ways that individuals use to express their ideas?

   • Individuals express ideas through conversation, pictures, cinema, books, and art.

3. Find out from the surroundings what special considerations have been adopted to ensure equal justice.

   • Reserved seats for the differently-abled on buses and reservation policies to ensure equality for weaker sections of society.

4. What are the factors that make the opposition essential in a democratic system?

   • The opposition is essential for criticizing the government, suggesting alternative policies, and making the political system more active and accountable through protests and debates.

5. Find and list out the reasons why India adopted a democratic system.

   • Democratic values greatly influenced the Indian freedom struggle.
   • A democratic system could politically unify a diverse country.
   • It provides a platform for different ideas to interact peacefully.
   • It ensures a peaceful transfer of power and allows people to voice grievances.

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Chapter 10: Europe on the World Map

Key Concepts and Notes

• Geography of Europe:
  • The sixth largest continent, often seen as a western extension of Asia (Eurasia).
  • Bordered by the Arctic Ocean (north), Atlantic Ocean (west), and Mediterranean Sea (south). Separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains, Black Sea, and Caspian Sea.
  • Topography:
    • North Western Highlands: Includes the Scandinavian Plateau, known for round-topped hills and Fjords (glacial valleys rich in fish).
    • North European Plains: A vast agricultural plain containing the Steppes grassland. The Volga is Europe's longest river.
    • Central Uplands: An area of hills, valleys, and plateaus.
    • Alpine Mountain System: A series of young fold mountains, including the Alps and Caucasus. Mount Elbrus is the highest peak.
• Climate of Europe:
  • Characterized by mild summers and relatively severe winters, with significant regional variations. Europe is the only continent without a desert.
  • Climate Zones: Arctic/Tundra, Subarctic/Taiga (coniferous forests), Eastern European (Steppes), Western European (deciduous forests), and Mediterranean (hot, dry summers).
• Population and Agriculture:
  • The third most populous continent. Population density is very low in Scandinavian countries due to harsh geography and climate.
  • Farming Methods:
    • Intensive Farming: Uses advanced technology in densely populated areas.
    • Extensive Farming: Mechanized grain farming on large plains (e.g., Steppes).
    • Mixed Farming: Raising livestock along with crops.
• Key Features and Cities:
  • Finland is known as the ‘Land of a Thousand Lakes.’
  • Major Cities: Paris (on the Seine), London (Thames), Berlin (Spree), Moscow (Moskva), and Rome (Tiber).

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. Complete the chart below regarding the topography of Europe.

   • North Western Highlands
   • North European Plains: Steppes
   • Alpine Mountain System: Fold Mountains
   • Central Uplands

2. The highest peak in Europe is indicated by a triangle. Find and write the name of this peak.

   • The highest peak in Europe is Mount Elbrus.

3. Complete the given list based on the subarctic climate.

   • Countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia.
   • Plants: Evergreen forests, coniferous trees (pine, cedar).
   • Animals: Lynx, ermine, silver fox.

4. Complete the given table by examining the climatic features of Europe.

   • Arctic climate: Short, cold summers and long, harsh winters.
   • Subarctic climate: Mild summers and harsh winters; precipitation is mainly snow.
   • Eastern European climate: Severe summers and extreme winters; scanty rainfall.
   • Western European climate: Severe winter, moderate heat, and rainfall throughout the year.
   • Mediterranean climate: Hot, dry summers and cold, rainy winters.

5. Prepare a note on how the topography and climate of countries like Norway, Sweden, and Finland influence population density.

   • The presence of high hills, glaciers, and fjords, combined with the extreme cold of the Arctic and Subarctic climates, makes these regions difficult to inhabit. As a result, population density is very low, with most people living in the milder coastal cities in the South.

6. Complete the table of crops based on the farming methods in Europe.

   • Central and Western Europe (Mixed farming): Cereals and vegetables.
   • Mediterranean region (Intensive farming): Oranges, olives, and grapes.
   • Steppes grasslands (Extensive farming): Wheat, barley, corn, and oats.

7. Find out which cities are located on the banks of the major rivers given below.

   • Thames: London
   • Tiber: Rome
   • Moskva: Moscow
   • Seine: Paris
   • Spree: Berlin

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Chapter 11: The World in the Middle Ages

Key Concepts and Notes

• Feudalism in Europe: A political, social, and economic system based on land ownership that emerged after the fall of the Roman Empire.
  • The king owned all land and granted it to nobles in return for loyalty and military service.
  • Society was divided into three orders: the Clergy, the Nobles, and the Peasants.
  • Peasants (serfs) worked on noble estates without wages and could not leave the land.
  • Feudalism declined due to factors like climate change, the Black Death, the invention of gunpowder, and the Crusades.
• Empires of the Middle Ages:
  • Holy Roman Empire: Founded by Charlemagne. The architecture of this period is known as the Carolingian style.
  • Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire: Capital was Constantinople. The famous ruler Justinian compiled the Code of Justinian (Corpus Juris Civilis).
  • Arab Empire: Prophet Muhammad united the Arab tribes. His successors were known as Caliphs.
    • Umayyad Dynasty: Moved the capital to Damascus.
    • Abbasid Dynasty: Moved the capital to Baghdad. Harun al-Rashid was a notable ruler.
    • Arab Contributions: Algebra, Arabic numerals, spreading the concept of Zero (from India), advances in chemistry, optics, and medicine.
  • Mongol Empire: Founded by Genghis Khan, who united Mongol tribes. The capital was Karakoram. They had a postal system ('Yam') and a code of law ('Yasa').
  • Mali Empire (West Africa): Flourished under Mansa Kangan Musa. It was rich in gold and salt. Timbuktu was a famous center of trade and Islamic learning.
• Civilisations in America:
  • The Aztec, Mayan, and Inca civilizations flourished before European contact.
  • Aztecs (Mexico): Capital was Tenochtitlan. They built artificial islands called Chinampas.
  • Mayans (Mexico): Cultivated maize and made advances in mathematics and astronomy.
  • Incas (Peru): The largest indigenous civilization in South America. Capital was Cuzco. They built Machu Picchu and used quipu (knotted strings for recording numbers).
  • These cultures were destroyed by Spanish colonization.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. What was the condition of the peasants in the feudal system?

   • Peasants (slaves/serfs) did not own land. They were forced to work on the estates of nobles without wages and were not allowed to leave the land without permission.

2. Prepare a profile album of the caliphs who came to power in Arabia after Prophet Muhammad.

   • Early Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Usman, and Ali.
   • Umayyad Dynasty: Muawiya.
   • Abbasid Dynasty: Abul Abbas and Harun al-Rashid.

3. List out the contributions of the Arabs to the world.

   • The Arabs contributed algebra and Arabic numerals. They spread the concept of Zero (from India). They were innovators in chemistry and optics and had advanced knowledge of diseases like tuberculosis and smallpox. They also established great universities.

4. Discuss the characteristics of the Mongol Empire and the Mali Empire.

   • Mongol Empire: Founded by Genghis Khan, it united nomadic tribes. Its capital was Karakoram, and it had an efficient postal system ('Yam') and a code of law ('Yasa').
   • Mali Empire: Flourished in West Africa under Mansa Musa. It was rich in gold and salt, and Timbuktu became a renowned center for trade and Islamic learning.

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Chapter 12: Agricultural Sector and Innovative Trends

Key Concepts and Notes

• Importance of Agriculture: Provides food, fodder, employment, and raw materials for industries.
• Cropping Systems:
  • Monocropping: Cultivating one crop at a time.
  • Multiple Cropping (Poly Cropping): Cultivating two or more crops on the same plot to increase production. Includes Mixed, Inter, Sequence, and Relay cropping.
  • Crop Rotation: Cultivating different crops alternately to maintain soil fertility.
• Modern Agricultural Technologies:
  • Green Revolution: Increased food grain production through high-yielding variety seeds, irrigation, and chemical fertilizers.
  • Rain Shelter Farming: Uses a transparent roof to protect crops from excess rain.
  • Polyhouse Farming: Cultivation in a structure completely covered with polythene sheets to create a controlled environment.
  • Precision Farming: Uses micro-irrigation and fertigation to provide precise amounts of water and nutrients.
  • Digital Farming: Incorporates AI, big data, robotics, and mobile apps.
  • Vertical Farming: Growing crops in vertically stacked layers, often in urban areas.
  • Organic Farming: Avoids all chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides.
• Challenges in Agriculture: High production costs, inadequate mechanization, low prices, lack of market access, agricultural debt, and climate change.
• Agricultural Markets:
  • An efficient market is essential for farmers to get fair prices.
  • Organised Markets: Operate under government rules (e.g., APMC).
  • Unorganised Markets: Rural primary markets (haats) and wholesale markets (mandis).
  • E-Nam (National Agriculture Market): An online trading platform to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. What are the different types of Poly Cropping?

   • Mixed cropping, Inter cropping, Sequence cropping, and Relay cropping.

2. Complete the diagram by selecting the appropriate factors influencing the cropping system.

   • Factors: Natural factors, Economic factors, Social factors, Government policies, Technological factors, Farmers’ income, Transportation.
   • Cropping Systems: Monocropping, Poly Cropping, Crop Rotation.

3. Prepare a note comparing Polyhouse farming with Rain Shelter farming.

   • Rain Shelter Farming: Uses a roof covered with transparent polythene sheets to protect crops from excess rain while allowing in sunlight. It is suitable for year-round production in areas with heavy rainfall.
   • Polyhouse Farming: The cultivation is done in a structure completely covered with polythene sheets to artificially create a controlled environment, protecting plants from heat, rain, and cold.

4. Prepare a note discussing the importance of agricultural markets.

   • An efficient agricultural market is essential for the progress of agriculture. Its main objective is to enable farmers to earn the best possible income by getting fair prices. It also ensures that consumers receive quality products at fair prices. Structured markets like APMC protect farmers from exploitation.

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Chapter 13: Building New Nations

Key Concepts and Notes

• The American War of Independence (18th Century):
  • Causes: British mercantilist laws that restricted colonial trade and imposed taxes (like the Stamp Act) to cover war costs. The slogan was "No taxation without representation."
  • Key Events: The Continental Congresses in Philadelphia, the Declaration of Independence (drafted by Thomas Jefferson), and the war led by George Washington.
  • Outcome: The colonies defeated Britain, and their independence was recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783). The US adopted the first written constitution, creating a federal republic with a separation of powers.
  • American Civil War (1861-1865): Fought over the issue of slavery. The industrial North opposed the plantation-based South. Abraham Lincoln's election as President, committed to ending slavery, led the Southern states to secede. The Union's victory preserved the nation's unity and abolished slavery.
• The Russian Revolution (1917):
  • Causes: The autocratic rule of the Tsars, the misery of peasants and workers, and the impact of World War I.
  • February Revolution: A strike by women workers led to the overthrow of the Tsar and the formation of a Provisional Government.
  • October Revolution: The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power from the Provisional Government.
  • Reforms by Lenin: Confiscated private land for peasants, nationalized major industries, withdrew from WWI, and formed the USSR. He later implemented the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allowed for some private trade.
• The Chinese Revolution:
  • Background: Foreign intervention after the Opium War weakened China. The Boxer Rebellion was an early anti-foreign uprising.
  • 1911 Revolution: Led by Sun Yat-sen, it overthrew the Manchu dynasty and established a republic.
  • Rise of Communism: The Communist Party of China was formed. Mao Zedong organized the famous Long March (1934) to rally peasants.
  • Outcome: After a long civil war, China was declared the People’s Republic of China in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong.

SCERT Questions and Answers

1. What are the rights mentioned in the Declaration of Independence?

   • The rights mentioned are the right to Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness (Well-being). It also states the right of the people to alter or abolish a government that becomes destructive of these rights.

2. Prepare a flowchart of the main events related to the Continental Congress.

   • First Philadelphia Congress (1774): Suspended trade with Britain and submitted the Olive Branch Petition.
   • Second Philadelphia Congress (1775): Appointed George Washington as Commander-in-Chief and commenced war.
   • Third Philadelphia Congress (1776): Issued the Declaration of Independence.

3. What was the main reason for the conflict between the Southern and Northern States in the American Civil War?

   • The main conflict arose because the economically dependent Southern states relied heavily on slavery for their plantation-based agriculture, while the industrial Northern states opposed the institution of slavery.

4. Discuss the role of Abraham Lincoln in maintaining the unity of America.

   • Lincoln was committed to abolishing slavery, the central issue threatening the nation’s unity. He led the Union to victory in the Civil War, preventing the nation from splitting apart. His Emancipation Proclamation defined the war's goal as ending slavery while preserving the Union.

5. How did the miserable conditions of peasants and workers lead the Russian people to revolution?

   • Peasants were robbed, starving, and forced to eat dirt. Workers faced low wages, poor living conditions, and long working hours. These miserable conditions, combined with the Tsar's oppressive rule and the hardships of WWI, created widespread discontent and fueled the desire for revolution.

6. What were the results of the Opium War?

   • China's defeat in the Opium War resulted in the Treaty of Nanking, which forced China to open major ports (like Canton and Shanghai) to foreign trade. This led to a loss of control and strengthened foreign commercial and political dominance in China.

7. What were the reforms implemented by Lenin after the revolution?

   • All private land was confiscated and distributed to the peasants. Major economic sectors were nationalized. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed. Russia withdrew from World War I.

8. Note down the important information related to the Long March.

   • It started from Kiangsi in South China in 1934 and ended in Shensi in North-western China.
   • The march covered approximately 8,000 miles.
   • It passed through 11 provinces.