8th class SS Notes
๐Malayalam
Social Science - Part I (Standard VIII)
Chapter 1: Invasion and Resistance
Page 7-11: English East India Company and Early Trade
• The text is prepared by the State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT), Kerala.
• The English East India Company (EIC) sent its first expedition to the East Indies in April 1601.
• The first expedition returned 18 months later with cargo (mainly pepper).
• The second expedition left London in March 1604.
• The Company made a substantial profit of 95% on its investment from this venture.
Page 12: Reasons for European Voyages
• Europeans had trade relations with Asia from ancient times.
• Connections led to the discovery of an eastward sea route from Europe by the late fifteenth century.
• Main reasons for the discovery of the sea route:
◦ Technological advances in European shipbuilding and sailing.
◦ Growth in knowledge about geography.
◦ Advances made in compass and map making.
◦ Travel writings by voyagers provided knowledge about new territories and their wealth.
◦ The commercial market for Asian products like pepper in Europe.
◦ Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks.
Page 13: Constantinople and Portuguese Arrival
• Constantinople: It was an important hub for land trade between Europe and Asia.
• In 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople, preventing further
European land trade, thus forcing Europeans to find an alternate route.
• The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India by sea.
• Vasco da Gama from Portugal was the first to reach India by sea.
Page 14-15: Vasco da Gama and the Zamorin
• Vasco da Gama and his crew reached India with three ships: Sao Gabriel, Sao Raphael, and Berrio.
• In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Kappad near Kozhikode.
• His arrival paved the way for European dominance in India.
• Kozhikode was ruled by the Zamorin dynasty at that time.
• The Arabs controlled the foreign trade with Kozhikode.
• The Zamorin did not accept the Portuguese demand to expel the Arabs and grant them exclusive trading rights.
• Vasco da Gama obtained permission for trade from the then Kolathiri king of Kannur.
• He returned to Portugal with goods (including pepper) worth sixty times more than the cost of his journey.
• Kunjali Marakkars: They were the naval chiefs of the Zamorin. They
protected the Zamorin and the western coast from the Portuguese attacks.
• Kunjali III defeated the Portuguese and captured Fort Chalium. Kunjali IV was executed by the Portuguese in Goa.
Page 17-18: Influence of the Portuguese in India
• Agricultural Impact: Introduced cashew tree (parangi mavu), papaya, guava (perakka), and pineapple.
• Political Impact: Established the first European Fort
in India, Fort Manuel, in Kochi. The regions of Kochi, Goa, and Daman
and Diu came under Portuguese rule.
• Knowledge/Cultural Impact: Popularized printing
technology. Popularized art forms such as Chavittunatakam and
Margamkali. Started European style of construction and gave training in
war tactics and European weapons. Started Christian religious education
centres.
Page 18-20: The Dutch and the Battle of Colachel
• The Europeans who came to India after the Portuguese were the Dutch (from Holland/Netherlands).
• Major trading centres of the Dutch: Nagapattinam, Bharuch, Ahmedabad, and Chinsura.
• The Dutch defeated the Portuguese in their competition for a trade monopoly.
• Battle of Colachel (1741): Marthandavarma (Travancore ruler) clashed with the Dutch near Kanyakumari.
• The Dutch lost their supremacy in India following this defeat. This
was the first battle in which a European power lost to an Indian ruler.
• Hortus Malabaricus: The greatest contribution of the relationship with the Dutch.
• It contains information about seven hundred and forty-two medicinal plants of Kerala.
• It was compiled by Hendrik–van Rheed (the Dutch governor).
• Itti Achuthan (an indigenous medical practitioner) and others (Appu Bhat, Ranga Bhat, Vinayaka Bhat) contributed to the work.
• Hortus Malabaricus was the first book to be printed with some Malayalam words.
Page 21-22: The French and the Carnatic Wars
• The British (English) came after the Dutch, and then the French arrived for trade.
• Carnatic Wars: Wars fought between the British and the French for dominance in South India.
• The British won, reducing French dominance to Pondicherry (Pudhucherry), Yanam, Karaikal, and Mahe.
• The battles took place in the Carnatic region (major portion of
present-day Tamil Nadu and coastal Southern Andhra Pradesh); there were
three Carnatic Wars.
Page 22-24: English East India Company’s Rise to Power
• The English East India Company was established in 1600.
• Captain William Hawkins obtained permission from Mughal Emperor Jahangir to set up a factory in Surat, Gujarat.
• The Company established dominance in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, and began interfering in their administration.
• Establishment of Political Dominance: The British established political dominance with the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
• The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, was defeated by Robert Clive's forces.
• The conquest of Bengal helped the British expand control and raise money via land taxes.
• Battle of Buxar (1764): The Company acquired the right to collect taxes in Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.
• In Buxar, the British defeated the combined forces of the Mughal ruler
Shah Alam II, the Nawab of Oudh, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and the Nawab of
Bengal, Mir Qasim.
Page 25-26: Subjugation of Princely States
• Robert Clive famously said: “Send me two thousand soldiers, I will conquer India.”.
• Reasons for British success: Disunity among Indian princely states and British military and technological supremacy.
• Anglo-Mysore Wars: Fought between Mysore (led by Hyder Ali and later Tipu Sultan) and the EIC.
• Mysore fell in the Fourth Mysore War (1799) when Tipu Sultan was killed.
• Anglo-Maratha Wars: Resulted in Maratha territories coming under British control.
• Anglo-Sikh Wars: Led to Punjab coming under British rule.
• The British methods for procuring maximum wealth included trade, tax collection, and wars.
Page 27-28: Tax Policies Implemented by the British
| Tax Policy | Implemented Areas | Executed Persons | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Permanent Land Revenue Settlement (1793) | Bengal, Bihar, Orissa | Lord Cornwallis | Zamindars collected high taxes; farmers paid fixed tax regardless of yield fluctuations. |
| Ryotwari System (1820) | South India, Deccan | Thomas Munro, Alexander Reed | Peasants considered landlords; British collected taxes directly; land was seized if farmers failed to pay. |
| Mahalwari System (1822) | North India, Central India, Punjab | Holt Mackenzie | Village (Mahal) treated as a unit for tax collection; defaulted villages were annexed. |
Page 28-29: Economic Exploitation and Its Impact
• General features of British taxation systems: Higher tax rate.
• Farmers were forced to take loans from moneylenders, leading to debt traps.
• Moneylenders were encouraged by the new legal and land tax systems.
• Farmers were forced to grow cash crops (indigo, cotton) instead of food crops, leading to food shortage.
• Effects on Farmers: Difficulty paying high taxes; no tax relief for crop damage; reliance on moneylenders; loss of land due to debt.
• Effects on Artisans: Market for handicraft products
(cotton-silk-wool clothes, pottery, leather, edible oil) was lost due to
competition from imported machine-made British products. This caused
loss of employment and forced abandonment of traditional occupations.
Page 32: Sannyasi-Fakir Rebellion
• The revolt stemmed from the adverse economic policies and the East
India Company's failure to address the Bengal famine (1773).
• Poor peasants and labourers fought against the British, supported by Sannyasies and Fakirs.
• Leaders: Bhavani Pathak and Majnu Shah.
• Vande Mataram, India's national song, is taken from the novel
Anandamath (1882) by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, where it is sung by the
character Bhavanandan.
Page 32-34: Neelam Peasant Revolt (Indigo Revolt)
• This was the most important agrarian revolt in Bengal (1859).
• Causes: British planters forced farmers to cultivate
indigo. Indigo could only be sold to the British for less than the
market price. This led to severe exploitation and food shortage. Demand
dropped due to the discovery of artificial dyes, increasing poverty and
agitation.
• Leaders: Digambar Biswas and Vishnu Biswas.
• Riots spread, farmers abandoned indigo cultivation, and indigo factories were attacked.
• Nil Darpan (The Indigo Planting Mirror), a play written by
Dinabandhumitra in 1860, was based on the miseries of indigo farmers.
Page 35-38: Tribal Rebellions (Santhal and Munda)
• Santhal Rebellion: Santhal tribal people migrated to the Rajmahal hills (Bengal) in the eighteenth century.
• Fought against British due to unjust extortion by landlords and usurers who were supported by the British.
• The British administration saw the land merely as a means to increase tax revenue.
• The struggle began in 1855. Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu.
• Ulgulan (The Great Tumult) / Munda Rebellion: Took place in the last decade of the nineteenth century.
• ‘Ulgulan’ means ‘great uproar’ or ‘great upheaval’.
• Led by Birsa Munda. Aimed to break colonial rule and establish a Munda kingdom (Mundarajya) in Jharkhand.
• Reasons: British colonial exploitation/land grabbing and financial exploitation by moneylenders/merchants.
• Birsa Munda was imprisoned and died there.
• Other Rebellions: Kurichiya Rebellion, Pahariya Rebellion, Kol Rebellion, Bhil Rebellion, and Khasi Rebellion.
• Note: Birsa Munda is the only tribal leader honored with his portrait displayed in the Indian Parliament.
Page 39-41: Poligar Rebellion and Vellore Mutiny
• Poligars: Military leaders of Tamil Nadu (derived from palayakkar).
• Leaders: Veerapandya Kattabomman (Panchalam Kurichi) and Marut Pandya brothers (Sivagangai).
• Kattabomman questioned British tax collection and died fighting against them.
• Vellore Mutiny (1806): The first military revolt against the British in India.
• Led by Indians in the British army; main cause was changes in the dress code.
Page 42-43: Attingal Revolt and Kittoor Rebellion
• Attingal Revolt (1721): The first organized rebellion against the British in India.
• Causes: British interference in the pepper trade, internal affairs, and attempts to create communal hatred.
• Conflict arose when a British contingent (140 led by Gifford) arrived
to give gifts to the Attingal Rani, which landlords resisted.
• The contingent was attacked and killed by locals; the Anchuthengu fort was surrounded.
• Kittoor Rani Chennamma: Fought against the British
after they prevented her from adopting an heir (following the Doctrine
of Lapse) and annexed her princely state of Kittoor (Karnataka). She
died in British custody in 1829.
Page 46-48: The Revolt of 1857 and Causes
• The Revolt of 1857 is considered India’s first struggle for independence.
• It involved various sections of society: natives, peasants, artisans, native kings, soldiers, and landlords.
• Main Causes (Administrative/Political):
◦ Subsidiary Alliance Policy (Lord Wellesley): Princely
states had to keep a permanent Company army unit (expenses borne by the
king), needed Company approval for alliances, and had to house a
British Resident. Violation meant annexation.
◦ Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie): Abolished the
power of a ruler to adopt a male heir; states were annexed in the
absence of a male heir. Awadh was annexed on charges of misrule.
• Immediate Cause (Military): Indian soldiers were
dissatisfied (paid less, poor treatment). The new Enfield guns had
cartridges rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat, which offended
religious beliefs.
• Mangal Pandey (Barrackpore) was the first to protest and was executed (April 8, 1857).
Page 51-54: Suppression, Leaders, and Impact of 1857
• The rebellion started in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh.
• Indian soldiers proclaimed Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India.
• The rebellion was brutally suppressed by the British. The unity of the rebellion was rooted in Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Key Leaders and Venues:
◦ Delhi: Bahadur Shah II (exiled to Rangoon) and General Bakht Khan.
◦ Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai.
◦ Kanpur: Nana Sahib and Tantia Tope (practiced guerilla warfare).
◦ Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal.
◦ Ara in Bihar: Kunwar Singh.
• Limitations of the Revolt: Confined to a few parts of
northern India; lacked organized leadership; British had superior
military skills; middle class and a section of princely rulers
abstained.
• Impact:
◦ The rule of the English East India Company ended.
◦ Administration came under the direct control of the British Queen.
◦ The position of Governor-General was replaced by Viceroy.
◦ It inspired India’s later national movements.
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 1)
Q1. What were the main reasons that led Europeans to find an eastward sea route to Asia?
A. Technological advances in shipbuilding, growth in
geographical knowledge, advances in compass/map making, commercial
market for Asian products (pepper), and the conquest of Constantinople
by the Turks.
Q2. Explain the contribution of the Portuguese in India in the Agricultural and Cultural sectors.
A. Agriculture: Introduced cashew tree, papaya, guava, and pineapple. Culture: Popularized printing technology, and art forms such as Chavittunatakam and Margamkali.
Q3. What was the significance of the Battle of Colachel?
A. The Dutch lost their supremacy in India. It was the first battle in which a European power lost to an Indian ruler.
Q4. Name the compiler and chief contributor of the work Hortus Malabaricus.
A. Compiler: Hendrik–van Rheed. Chief indigenous medical practitioner who helped: Itti Achuthan.
Q5. List the main differences between the Permanent Land Revenue Settlement and the Ryotwari System.
A. Permanent Settlement involved Zamindars collecting
taxes on behalf of the British, ensuring fixed tax regardless of yield.
Ryotwari treated peasants as landlords and taxes were collected directly
by the British.
Q6. Discuss the circumstances that led to the Neelam Peasant Revolt (Indigo Revolt).
A. British planters forced farmers to cultivate indigo;
farmers were paid below market price; this led to food shortage and
economic hardship; poverty increased when the demand for indigo
decreased due to artificial dyes.
Q7. Analyze the major administrative policies of the British that fueled the Revolt of 1857.
A. Subsidiary Alliance Policy (imposed military costs
and restrictions on foreign relations) and the Doctrine of Lapse
(annexed states where rulers died without a natural male heir).
Chapter 2: Towards the Emergence of the National Movement
Page 57-59: Nationalism and Economic Policy
• Nationalism: A strong anti-British feeling was the
basis of the sense of unity that emerged among Indians in the second
half of the nineteenth century, transcending differences like caste,
religion, and language.
• Economic Policy: India became a colony for collecting raw materials and a market for British products; economic exploitation was the aim.
• British policies led to unemployment and poverty, causing farmers,
artisans, small traders, and tribal communities to fight against the
British.
• Early leaders who studied British economic exploitation included Dadabhai Naoroji, R. C. Dutt, and Mahadev Govind Ranade.
• Dadabhai Naoroji (known as the ‘Grand Old Man of India’) presented the Drain Theory in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
Page 60-61: Western Education
• Modern (English) education spread in India in the early nineteenth century.
• The British propagated it to highlight their superiority and culturally subjugate Indians.
• Impact: English educated Indians became conscious of
democracy, freedom, egalitarianism, equal justice, scientific temper,
and civil rights.
• English became the common language for the exchange of ideas among
people from different parts of the country, aiding the emergence of
nationalism.
Page 62-64: Literature and Newspapers
• Literary works and newspapers spread nationalism by reflecting protest
against the British and detailing the sufferings and exploitation faced
by the people.
• Prominent Writers: Dinabandhu Mitra, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Subramania Bharati.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy pioneered journalism in India; started Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali) and Mirat ul-Akbar (Persian).
• Newspapers criticized British policies and patronized a critical mindset.
• The British enacted the Vernacular Press Act (Lord Lytton) to control the press.
Page 65-67: Social Reform Movements (Key Reformers)
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Bengal): Initiated social reforms. Played a crucial role in abolishing Sati. Started the social reform movement Brahma Samaj. Fought against child marriage and polygamy; argued for women’s right to inheritance.
• Jyotirao Phule (Maharastra): Fought for the rights of lower castes and women. Formed Satyashodhak Samaj.
Established educational institutions for Women and Dalits. Respectfully
called ‘Mahatma’. His wife, Savitribai Phule, also participated in
educational activities.
• Pandita Ramabai (Karnataka): Fought against child marriage. Established Arya Mahila Samaj. Started 'Sharada Sadan' for widow rehabilitation and 'Mukti Mission' for vocational training for women.
Page 68-69: Other Reform Movements and Transport
• Other Reform Movements & Founders: Prarthana
Samaj (Atmaram Pandurang), Arya Samaj (Swami Dayananda Saraswati),
Aligarh Movement (Sir Syed Ahmad Khan), Ramakrishna Mission (Swami
Vivekananda), Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (Sree Narayana
Guru), Sadhujana Paripalana Sangham (Ayyankali).
• Transport and Communication: British expanded railways, postal system, telegraph services, and road transport for trade and military purposes.
• These facilities helped people travel, communicate, and understand each other, strengthening the idea of nationalism.
Page 70-73: Formation of Political Organisations
• Early organizations formed to unite people against the British were generally confined to specific provinces.
• Early Political Movements: Indian Association (Calcutta), Madras Mahajan Sabha (Madras), Bombay Presidency Association (Bombay).
• These early organizations, led by the rich and middle class, failed to create mass political awareness.
• Formation of Indian National Congress (INC): Formed in 1885.
• The historical conference was held on December 28, 1885, at the Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
• 72 persons assembled; organized by an Englishman, Allan Octavian Hume.
• W. C. Banerjee, a lawyer, presided over the meeting.
Page 75-76: Objectives of the Indian National Congress
• To foster friendly relations among political activists in different parts of India.
• To foster and strengthen a sense of national unity irrespective of caste, religion, and province.
• To formulate and give shape to common needs and present them to the British Government.
• To form a public opinion and organize people in the country.
• To allow centres in India for All India Competitive Examinations.
• Important Early Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji,
Surendranath Banerjee, Pherozshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, Gopalakrishna
Gokhale, Balagangadhara Tilak, P. Ananda Charlu, R. C. Dutt and Ananda
Mohan Bose.
• Sir. C Sankaran Nair was the first Malayali President of the Indian National Congress (Amaravathi Congress, 1897).
Page 77-82: Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement
• Partition of Bengal (1905): Devised by British
authorities (Lord Curzon, Viceroy) to weaken Congress-led struggles by
dividing the stronghold of the nationalist movement.
• Official Argument: Partition was necessary for efficient administration of the vast province.
• Actual Motive: To split Bengal into East Bengal (Muslim-majority) and West Bengal (Hindu-majority) to weaken opponents to British rule.
• Protest (October 16, 1905): Mourning observed; hartal in Calcutta; people sang ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ (composed by Rabindranath Tagore).
• Swadeshi Movement: The massive strike/protest following the partition.
• Main mode of struggle: Use of Indian goods and boycott of British goods.
• Main Concept: ‘Self-reliance’.
• Economic Impact: Many indigenous industries started
(textile mills, soap factories, banks, etc.). Examples: Bengal Chemical
Store (Acharya P. C. Roy), Swadeshi Store (Rabindranath Tagore),
Swadeshi Steem Navigation Company (V. Chidambaram Pillai), Steel Factory
(Jamshedji Tata).
• Social Impact: Common people, women, and students became participants in a political movement for the first time.
• Swadeshi Samitis: Voluntary organizations (like the
Swadeshi Bandhab Samiti formed by Ashwini Kumar Dutt) that spread the
message, provided physical training, and established Swadeshi
Vidyalayas.
Page 83-86: Moderates, Extremists, and Congress Split
• Moderates: Early leadership, not ready for open
struggle. Propagated ideas through peaceful/bloodless struggles,
meetings, speeches, and resolutions. Leaders: Pherozshah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji.
• Extremists: Dissatisfied with moderate methods.
Adopted revolutionary methods like swadeshi and boycott. Believed
freedom required strong open struggle. Leaders: Bal Gangadhara Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai (collectively known as Lal-Bal-Pal).
• Surat Split (1907): Acute differences between moderates and extremists led to a split in the Congress.
• The British used this split to implement their policy of divide and rule more effectively.
• Formation of All India Muslim League (1906):
Following demands made by a delegation led by Aga Khan to Lord Minto for
special representation and separate constituencies for Muslims.
• Minto Morley reforms (1909): Implemented by the British to mitigate anger and influence moderates. Main provisions: provision of separate constituencies for Muslims and expansion of legislature functions/powers.
Page 87-89: Home Rule League and Revolutionaries
• Home Rule League: Revived political activities during World War I (1914).
• Led by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhara Tilak.
• Aim: Home Rule or Self-Government.
• Annie Besant was arrested; later released and became the first woman president of the INC (Calcutta Conference, 1917).
• Lucknow Conference (1916): Moderates and extremists united, and the INC decided to work together with the All India Muslim League.
• Revolutionary Organisations (Armed Struggle): Believed the Western empire could only be overthrown through violence.
◦ Anusheelan Samiti (Bengal): Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Aurobindo Ghosh.
◦ Bharat Mata Association (Madras): Neelakanta Brahmachari, Vanchi Iyer, Ajit Singh.
◦ Yugantar Party (Bengal): Rash Behari Bose, Khudiram Bose.
◦ Ghadar party (America): Lala Hardayal.
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 2)
Q1. What is Nationalism?
A. A sense of unity emerging among Indians beyond existing differences, based on a strong anti-British feeling.
Q2. Who is known as the ‘Grand Old Man of India’ and what was his major contribution to economic thought?
A. Dadabhai Naoroji. He presented the observation that
the British were draining away the wealth of India (Drain Theory) in his
book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
Q3. List two main reforming activities of Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
A. He played a crucial role in abolishing Sati and started the Brahma Samaj.
Q4. State the main objective of the Partition of Bengal.
A. The British authorities aimed to divide the province
of Bengal, the stronghold of the nationalist movement, to split up and
weaken a solid body of opponents to their rule.
Q5. Explain the significance of the Swadeshi Movement.
A. It emerged as a massive strike against the Partition
of Bengal; the main struggle was the use of Indian goods and the
boycott of British goods; it promoted self-reliance; and for the first
time, common people, women, and students participated in a political
movement.
Q6. Compare the working methods of the Moderates and the Extremists.
A. Moderates: Used peaceful, bloodless struggles, meetings, speeches, and resolutions. Extremists: Adopted revolutionary methods like swadeshi and boycott, arguing freedom required strong open struggle.
Q7. What were the results of the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909?
A. The main provisions included the provision of
separate constituencies for Muslims and the expansion of the functions
and powers of the legislatures.
Chapter 3: Movements of the Earth: Rotation and Revolution
Page 91-93: Rotation and Day/Night
• The direction of the Earth’s rotation is from the west to the east.
• Rotation: The time taken for one rotation is 24 hours (23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds).
• Effects of Rotation: Day and night, and the Coriolis effect.
• Day and Night: The part of the Earth facing the Sun has daytime, and the other part experiences night.
• Circle of Illumination: The imaginary line that demarcates day and night on the Earth. This line is not parallel to the Earth's axis.
Page 93-94: Planetary Rotation and Revolution
• The direction of rotation for all planets except Mars and Uranus is west to east. Mars and Uranus rotate from east to west.
• Revolution: While rotating on its axis, the Earth revolves around the Sun in a fixed elliptical orbit.
• The time taken for one revolution is 365¼ days.
• Leap Year: 365 days is one year; the ¼ day fraction
is added once every 4 years to February (making it 29 days). A year with
366 days is a leap year.
Page 95-96: Coriolis Effect and Orbital Distance
• Coriolis Effect: Due to rotation, freely moving bodies on the Earth's surface get deflected in their direction.
• Ferrel's Law: Discovered by Admiral Ferrel. Due to
the Coriolis Effect, ocean currents and winds change direction to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.
• Precession: The axial rotation of the Earth, taking around 26,000 years for the Earth’s axis to complete one slow circle.
• Perihelion: The day the Earth comes closest to the Sun (147 million kilometres), around January 3rd.
• Aphelion: The day the distance between the Sun and the Earth is maximum (152 million kilometres), around July 4th.
• The speed of Earth's revolution is around 30 km per second.
Page 97-99: Apparent Movement of the Sun and Equinoxes
• The Earth’s axis is maintained at an angle of 23½° throughout the revolution.
• Apparent Movement of the Sun: The Sun’s apparent
position moves northward and southward between the Tropic of Cancer
(23½° North) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° South).
• Equinox: Occurs on 21st March (Spring Equinox) and 23rd September (Autumnal Equinox).
• On these days, the Sun’s rays fall vertically on the equator (0°), and
the duration of day and night is equal in both hemispheres.
Page 100-104: Solstices
• Summer Solstice (June 21): The Sun’s apparent position shifts towards the north (from March 21).
• On June 21, the Sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer (23½° North).
• The northern hemisphere experiences the longest day and shortest night.
• The northern polar region experiences continuous daylight for around six months (March to September).
• Winter Solstice (December 22): The Sun’s apparent position shifts towards the south (from September 23).
• On December 22, the Sun's rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° South).
• The southern hemisphere experiences the longest day and shortest night.
• The northern polar region experiences continuous darkness for six months (September to March).
• Aurora: Natural colored light seen in the polar
regions during winter months when strong solar winds are experienced.
Aurora Borealis (North) and Aurora Australis (South).
• Uttarayanam: Apparent movement of the Sun towards North (Tropic of Capricorn to Tropic of Cancer) following the Winter Solstice (Dec 22).
• Dakshinayanam: Apparent movement of the Sun towards South (Tropic of Cancer to Tropic of Capricorn) following the Summer Solstice (June 21).
Page 105-109: Seasons
• Seasons are specific weather patterns caused by the apparent shift in the Sun's position.
• The cause of seasons is the revolution of the Earth and variations in the availability of solar energy.
• Seasons (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter) occur in a cyclical manner.
• Spring: Plants bloom; daytime gradually increases.
• Summer: High atmospheric temperature; generally longer days.
• Autumn: Trees shed leaves before winter; daytime gradually decreases.
• Winter: Low atmospheric temperature; snowfall; generally longer nights.
• Traditional Seasons in India (Six): Vasantham (Mar, Apr), Greeshmam (May, Jun), Varsham (Jul, Aug), Sarath (Sep, Oct), Hemantam (Nov, Dec), Sisiram (Jan, Feb).
Page 111-115: Time Calculation (Local Time, Standard Time, GMT)
• The Earth takes 24 hours to spin 360°.
• Time taken to turn 1° is 4 minutes (60 minutes / 15°).
• Local Time: Calculated based on the shadow and the overhead position of the Sun (noon when the Sun is vertically overhead).
• Jantar Mantar: Astronomical observation site (Jaipur, built by Maharaja Jai Singh II) used to calculate local time precisely.
• Standard Time: Adopted to avoid confusion caused by
different local times within a country (for railways, examinations,
etc.). Countries select a longitude that is a multiple of 7½° as the
Standard Meridian.
• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT): The local time at the Prime Meridian (0° longitude), which passes through the Royal British Observatory in England.
• Time is added (4 minutes per degree) when moving East of Greenwich and subtracted when moving West.
Page 116-117: Time Zones and Indian Standard Time
• Time Zones: The world is divided into 24 zones, each with a 1-hour difference and 15° longitudinal distance.
• Indian Standard Time (IST): India has a longitudinal difference of nearly 30° (about 2 hours) between Arunachal Pradesh (east) and Gujarat (west).
• The 82½° East longitude is selected as the Standard Meridian of India.
• The time difference between Greenwich Meridian (0° longitude) and IST
(82½° East) is 5 hours and 30 minutes (82.5 x 4 minutes = 330 minutes,
or 5.5 hours).
Page 119-120: International Date Line
• The International Date Line is considered the 180° longitude.
• There is a 24-hour time difference on either side of the 180° longitude.
• Travellers moving westwards crossing the line add a day.
• Travellers moving towards the east crossing the line calculate time by deducting a day.
• The line is adjusted (not straight) to avoid populated land areas in the Pacific Ocean.
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 3)
Q1. What is the difference in time for 1° longitudinal extent?
A. 4 minutes.
Q2. Explain Perihelion and Aphelion.
A. Perihelion: When the Earth is closest to the Sun (147 million km), around January 3rd. Aphelion: When the Earth is farthest from the Sun (152 million km), around July 4th.
Q3. Define Equinox and Solstice.
A. Equinox: Occurs March 21 (Spring)
and September 23 (Autumn) when the Sun's rays fall vertically on the
equator, making day and night equal. Solstice: Occurs
June 21 (Summer Solstice, longest day in Northern Hemisphere) when rays
fall on Tropic of Cancer, and December 22 (Winter Solstice, longest day
in Southern Hemisphere) when rays fall on Tropic of Capricorn.
Q4. State Ferrel’s law concerning the Coriolis effect.
A. Due to the Coriolis Effect, ocean currents and winds
change their direction to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere.
Q5. Why is a standard time necessary for a country?
A. To avoid confusion caused by different local times
(which vary by longitude) for commonly conducted examinations, railway
time, radio telecast, etc.
Chapter 4: Basic Economic Problems and the Economy
Page 123-124: Needs and Their Characteristics
• Basic Needs: Essential needs for survival, such as food, clothing, and shelter.
• Gratifying Needs: Needs that make life more comfortable and happy (e.g., luxury cars, expensive jewellery).
• Characteristics of Needs: Diverse and innumerable;
some met alone, others collectively; a fulfilled need may be repeated;
needs vary with time, place, and individuals; needs change with human
progress.
Page 125-126: Basic Economic Problems
• The country faces problems in the production process because resources are limited while demands multiply.
• Three basic economic problems:
1. What to produce? (Prioritizing which goods/services and in what quantity, balancing needs with limited resources).
2. How to produce? (Choice of technologies/methods).
3. For whom to produce? (How goods/services are distributed among the people).
Page 128-130: How to Produce (Techniques)
• The same product can be produced using different proportions of labour and capital.
• Labour Intensive Technique: Uses more labour and less capital.
◦ Characteristics: Production involving more labourers; low capital
utilization; requires more time; eco-friendly; limited use of
technology.
• Capital Intensive Technique: Uses more capital and less labour (machines).
◦ Characteristics: Less demand for labourers; utilizes more capital
investment; ensures productivity; depends more on technology; less time
for production.
Page 131: For Whom to Produce (Distribution)
• This problem concerns how the value of goods produced is distributed based on the factors of production.
• Factors of Production and Corresponding Income:
◦ Land receives rent.
◦ Labour receives wages.
◦ Capital receives interest.
◦ Organization receives profit.
Page 133-134: Economy and Capitalist Economy
• Economy: The way a country organizes the production,
distribution, and consumption of various goods and services to satisfy
human needs using available resources.
• Characteristics of the Economy: Man-made; subject to change; economic activities keep changing; production, distribution, and consumption are main activities.
• Capitalist Economy: Ownership of factors of production is concentrated in individuals.
◦ Features: Right to own property; objective is maximum
profit; limited government intervention; consumer sovereignty (complete
freedom in the market); competition among industries.
Page 135-137: Socialist and Mixed Economies
• Socialist Economy: Government owns and controls all factors of production. Decisions made by a centralized planning committee.
◦ Features: Ownership vested in government; main
objective is social welfare; government control over the market; aims to
reduce inequality in income and wealth.
• Mixed Economy: Combines features of capitalist and socialist economies. India adopted a mixed economy after independence.
◦ Features: Coexistence of private and public sectors;
objectives are profitability and social welfare; individual freedom in
economic activities; financial planning for government schemes;
government regulation of prices in certain sectors; priority given to
essential goods.
• Knowledge Economy: An economic system where knowledge and skills are the conductors of growth and innovation, considered a key resource.
Page 139-141: Founders and Key Economic Ideas
• Adam Smith: Known as the Father of Economics; economics was the science of wealth.
• Alfred Marshall: Formulated economics as the science that deals with welfare.
• Lionel Robbins: Envisioned economics as the branch dealing with the relationship between human wants and limited resources.
• David Ricardo: Theory that trade between two countries can increase welfare; famous for 'Theory of Rent'.
• Karl Marx: Developed the ‘Theory of Surplus Value’
(only a small portion of production basis—labour—is given to the worker,
the majority is kept by the capitalist).
• J. M. Keynes: Argued for government intervention in the economic sector to solve problems.
• J. A. Schumpeter: Developed the concept of ‘Creative
Destruction’ (innovation creates new opportunities but disrupts/destroys
existing industries).
Page 142-145: Indian Economists
• Chanakya (Ancient India): Devised an efficient tax system for economic development.
• Dadabhai Naoroji: Originator of 'The Drain Theory'.
• Mahatma Gandhi’s Economic Thoughts: Envisioned an
economy based on self-sufficiency and decentralization. Nurturing rural
industries to increase employment; expanding local markets; alleviating
economic inequality.
• Amartya Kumar Sen: First Indian economist to win the Nobel Prize in Economics (1998) for contributions to Welfare Economics.
◦ Thoughts: Emphasis on education, health care, social
justice; gender equality and women empowerment are essential; economic
development evaluated based on influence on human rights and freedoms.
• Abhijit Vinayak Banerjee: Awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize for devising an experimental approach to global poverty eradication.
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 4)
Q1. What are the three basic economic problems faced by a country in relation to the production process?
A. What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce?
Q2. Distinguish between Labour Intensive Technique and Capital Intensive Technique.
A. Labour Intensive: Uses more labour, less capital, requires more time, eco-friendly. Capital Intensive: Uses more capital, less labour, ensures productivity, depends more on technology, less time for production.
Q3. State the main features of a Socialist Economy.
A. Ownership of factors of production vested in the
government; main objective is social welfare; government control over
the market; centralized planning; aims to reduce inequality.
Q4. How is the value of produced goods distributed among the factors of production?
A. Rent to land, wages to labour, interest to capital, and profit to organization.
Q5. Who developed the 'Theory of Surplus Value' and what does it assert?
A. Karl Marx. It asserts that production is based on
the labor of workers, but the majority of the value generated is kept by
the capitalist, with only a small portion given to the laborer.
Q6. What are the core ideas of Amartya Kumar Sen on Welfare Economics?
A. Emphasis on education, health care, and social
justice; gender equality and women empowerment; and evaluating
development based on influence on human rights and freedoms.
Chapter 5: Constitution of India: Rights and Duties
Page 147-149: Constitution and Rights
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar emphasized the importance of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• The Constituent Assembly came into existence on December 6, 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the Chairman.
• The Preamble of the Indian Constitution declares that justice,
liberty, equality, and fraternity shall be protected for all citizens.
• Rights are claims accepted by society, recognized, and enforced by the state through law.
Page 151-155: Origin of Fundamental Rights
• Human Rights: Rights that protect the dignity and individuality of human beings universally, regardless of caste, religion, gender, etc.
• Timeline of Fundamental Rights:
◦ Magna Carta (1215, Britain): Earliest written document of rights, declaring the king and government are not above the law.
◦ Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789, French Revolution): Declared individual and collective rights; citizens are born free and equal.
◦ United States Bill of Rights (1789): Mentioned in the
world’s first written constitution; guarantees religious belief,
freedom of speech/press, and security of life/property.
◦ Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948, UN): Issued for implementation by all member states.
• Factors influencing Fundamental Rights in India:
Denial of rights during British rule; values upheld by the freedom
struggle; ideas of the Indian Renaissance Movement; and the Bills of
Rights of other countries.
Page 156-162: Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution
• Fundamental Rights are enshrined in Part III of the Constitution. They
are protected and enforced by the Constitution itself, unlike statutory
rights.
• 1. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18): Ensures
equality before the law and equal protection of the law. Prohibits
discrimination based on religion, class, caste, sex, or place of birth.
Ensures equal access to public places, equality of opportunity in public
jobs, and abolishes untouchability and titles.
• 2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19-22): Reflects the aspirations of people who lived under foreign rule.
◦ Article 19 Freedoms: Freedom of speech and
expression; to assemble peacefully; to form associations; to move
freely; to reside and settle; to practice any profession.
◦ Articles 20-22: Include rights such as the right to education, right to life, and individual freedom.
• Right to Education Act (2009): Education declared a
Fundamental Right under Article 21A (86th Amendment, 2002). Ensures
free, compulsory, and quality education for children aged six to
fourteen.
• 3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24): Ensures secured life by eliminating slavery, human trafficking, forced labour, and child labour.
◦ Article 23 prohibits forced labour and human trafficking.
◦ Article 24 prohibits employing children under 14 in mines, factories, or hazardous workplaces.
• 4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28):
Freedom to profess, practice, and propagate any acceptable religion,
subject to restrictions of public norms, health, and morality.
Guarantees equal treatment for all religions.
• 5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30):
Meant for minorities (religious, linguistic, cultural) to preserve and
develop their culture, language, and script. Minorities have the right
to establish and run their own educational institutions.
Page 162-164: Right to Constitutional Remedies
• 6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): The greatest protection for individual safety.
• If fundamental rights are violated, the Supreme Court (under Article
32) and High Courts (under Article 226) can be approached for
restoration.
• Rights are restored through writs (orders/directions issued by the courts).
• Dr. B. R. Ambedkar described this right as the heart and soul of the Indian Constitution.
• Types of Writs: Habeas Corpus (against unlawful
detention), Mandamus (against officer's failure to perform duty),
Prohibition (prohibiting lower courts from overstepping jurisdiction),
Quo Warranto (restraining an officer from holding an unwarranted
position), Certiorari (transferring a pending case to a higher court).
Page 164-167: Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)
• DPSP are included in Part IV (Articles 36 to 51).
• Aim: To establish a welfare state by ensuring the welfare and progress of all sections of the people.
• DPSP are not enforceable with the support of courts (unlike
Fundamental Rights). Governments must consider them when formulating
policies.
• Classification:
◦ Liberal Ideas: Promote international peace; Uniform
Civil Code; Equal justice and free legal aid; Provision of
care/education for children under six.
◦ Socialist Ideas: Wage for livelihood; Equal pay for
equal work; Participation of workers in management; Right to employment;
Humane working conditions/maternity benefits.
◦ Gandhian Ideas: Organise Gram Panchayats; Fostering
cottage industries; Prohibition of intoxicating drinks/drugs; Uplift of
Scheduled Castes/Tribes and weaker sections.
• DPSP in Practice: Many are implemented through
legislation, such as the Panchayati Raj Acts (Gandhian idea) and the
Right to Education Act, 2009 (Liberal idea).
Page 167-172: Fundamental Rights vs. Directive Principles, and Duties
• Differences: Fundamental rights limit government
power; DPSP compel action. FR protects individual rights; DPSP ensures
societal welfare. FR are enforceable in court; DPSP are not.
• Fundamental Duties (FDs): Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel suggested that citizens must fulfill duties along with rights.
• Included in Part IVA (Article 51A) by the 42nd Constitutional
Amendment in 1976, based on the recommendations of the Sardar Swaran
Singh Committee.
• Purpose: To protect the unity and integrity of the nation.
• Total Duties: There are eleven duties.
• Example FDs (Article 51 A): To abide by the
Constitution and respect the National Flag/Anthem (a); to cherish noble
ideals of the freedom struggle (b); to uphold sovereignty, unity, and
integrity (c); to defend the country (d); to promote common brotherhood
and renounce practices derogatory to women's dignity (e); to value and
preserve composite culture (f); to protect and improve the natural
environment (g); to develop scientific temper (h); to safeguard public
property and abjure violence (i); to strive for excellence (j); and for
parents/guardians to provide education opportunities to children aged
six to fourteen (k).
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 5)
Q1. Who is considered the constitutional architect of India?
A. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
Q2. Mention the important rights enshrined in the United States Bill of Rights.
A. Right to religious belief, freedom of speech,
freedom of press, the right to assemble peacefully, and the right to
security of life and property.
Q3. Which Fundamental Rights are crucial for the protection of children?
A. Right against Exploitation (prohibiting child labor
and forced labor, Article 24) and the Right to Education (Article 21A,
ensuring free and compulsory education for ages 6-14).
Q4. Why is the right to constitutional remedies described as the heart and soul of the Indian Constitution?
A. Because it provides the mechanism for citizens to
approach the Supreme Court or High Courts (via writs) for the
restoration and protection of all other fundamental rights if they are
violated.
Q5. Classify Directive Principles of State Policy based on their ideas.
A. Liberal ideas, Socialist ideas, and Gandhian ideas.
Q6. What committee recommended the inclusion of Fundamental Duties in the Constitution?
A. The Sardar Swaran Singh Committee.
Social Science - Part II (Standard VIII)
Chapter 8: National Movement and Kerala
Page 249-251: Early Conflicts and Pazhassi Raja
• In Kerala, the British gained the upper hand in the competition among Europeans for dominance.
• Malabar came under the direct rule of the English East India Company
(EIC), while Kochi and Travancore were princely states under British
supremacy.
• Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja: Member of the Kottayam royal family in Northern Malabar.
• Cause of Conflict: Pazhassi helped the British
against Mysore rulers, expecting to collect taxes in Kottayam. However,
after the Treaty of Srirangapatnam, the British handed tax collection to
Pazhassi’s loyalist uncle, Kurumbranadu king Veera Varma.
• Pazhassi protested by appealing to people not to pay taxes to the new rulers.
Page 252-255: Pazhassi’s Resistance and Defeat
• Pazhassi’s Defensive Strategies: Shifted base to Wayanad; mobilized local people; waged Guerrilla warfare.
• Military Support: Kurichya leader Thalakkal Chandu, Nair Chief Edachena Kunkan, Kaitheri Ambu, Kannavath Sankaran, and Pallur Eman.
• British Countermeasures: Set up military camps; built new roads; cut off rice supply to Wayanad; announced rewards for nabbling participants.
• Pazhassi died fighting the Company’s army at Mavilamthode in Wayanad on November 30, 1805.
• Srirangapatnam Treaty (1792): Between Tipu Sultan and EIC; ceded Malabar and Coorg to the British.
Page 256-259: Velu Thampi Dalawa and Kundara Proclamation
• Velu Thampi: Dalawa (Prime Minister) of Balarama Varma Maharaja of Travancore.
• The agreement of 1805 ended Travancore's political freedom; administration came under Macaulay, the British Resident.
• Cause of Conflict: Macaulay cancelled Velu Thampi’s orders and demanded immediate payment of tax arrears.
• Velu Thampi secretly allied with Paliath Achan (Prime Minister of Kochi).
• Kundara Proclamation (1809): Velu Thampi issued a proclamation at Kundara, calling on the people to prepare for an armed struggle against British dominance.
• The King removed him; Velu Thampi committed suicide at Mannadi rather than surrendering to the British.
Page 260-264: Paliath Achan and Kurichyar Rebellion
• Paliath Achan (Kochi): Opposed the interference of Macaulay in Kochi’s internal affairs and joined Velu Thampi. He was eventually exiled to Madras.
• Kurichyar Rebellion (1812): Kurichyar and Kurumbrar (tribal groups in Wayanad) supported Pazhassi, making them enemies of the British.
• Causes: British seized tribal lands; traditional farming methods were prohibited; money was demanded as tax instead of goods.
• Leader: Rama Nambi or Rama Mooppan. The rebellion was brutally suppressed by the British.
• Malabar Rebellion/Mappila Riots (19th Century): Series of rebellions in Malabar.
• Cause: British tax policies, exploitation, and
eviction by landlords. Since most participants were Mappila farmers, the
British called them 'Mappila riots'.
Page 265-272: Social Reform Movements in Kerala (Renaissance)
• Kerala society in the 19th and 20th centuries was plagued by caste
discrimination (untouchability, unapproachability, travel bans) and
superstitions.
• Social Reformers and Movements:
◦ Vaikunta Swamikal: Early reformer; performed the first ‘Kannadi Prathishta’ (mirror installation); Movement: Samatva Samaj.
◦ Kuriakose Elias Chavara: Educational activist; established orphanages/schools for the underprivileged.
◦ Sree Narayana Guru: Foremost reformer against caste
discrimination; proclaimed ‘become enlightened through knowledge’;
performed ‘Shiva prathishta’ at Aruvippuram; Movement: Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam.
◦ Chattampi Swamikal: Opposed caste system/irrational customs.
◦ Vakkom Abdul Khader Moulavi: Worked for Muslim cultural renaissance; Started Swadeshabhimani newspaper; Movement: Travancore Muslim Mahajana Sabha.
◦ Ayyankali: Fought for rights, self-respect, and education of oppressed sections; led the Villuvandi strike and the Kallumala strike; Movement: Sadhujana Paripalana Sangham.
◦ Mannath Padmanabhan: Worked for Nair community; Movement: Nair Service Society.
◦ Poikayil Yohannan: Fought against casteism/slavery; Movement: Pratyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha.
◦ V. T. Bhattathiripad: Reformer of the Namboodiri community; wrote Adukkalayil Ninnu Arangathekku; Movement: Yogakshema Sabha.
◦ Pandit K. P. Karuppan: Poet; worked for backward classes upliftment; Movement: Araya Samajam.
◦ Vagbhatananda: Promoted critical thinking based on logic; Movement: Atmavidya Sangham.
Page 273-279: Struggles for Civil Liberty
• Upper Cloth Agitation: Channar women in South
Travancore were initially denied the right to wear upper cloth. Riots
occurred, and finally, Maharaja Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma issued a
decree on July 26, 1859, removing restrictions.
• Vaikom Satyagraha (1924): Major struggle for freedom of travelling (opposing the ban on oppressed people using approach roads of Vaikom temple).
• Leaders: T. K. Madhavan, K. Kelappan, K. P. Kesava
Menon. Ended in 1925 with Mahatma Gandhi’s mediation, opening most roads
to all Hindus.
• Savarna Jatha: Procession organized from Vaikom to
Thiruvananthapuram under the leadership of Mannath Padmanabhan to
express solidarity with the Vaikom Satyagraha.
• Guruvayur Satyagraha (1931): Demanded that all sections of Hindus be allowed to enter the Guruvayur temple.
• Leaders: K. Kelappan (began a fast unto death) and Mannath Padmanabhan. Volunteer Captains: A. K. Gopalan and P. Krishna Pillai.
• Temple Entry Proclamation (1936): Issued by Chithira
Thirunal Balarama Varma (Travancore ruler), opening temples to all
Hindus. Gandhiji described this as a ‘miracle of modern times’.
• Paliyam Satyagraha (1947-48): Protest for the
abolition of untouchability (against the ban on walking in front of
Paliath Achan’s residence in Kochi). Led by C. Kesavan. Restrictions
were lifted in 1948.
Page 279-286: National Movement in Malabar (Salt Satyagraha, Malabar Rebellion)
• The national movement was highly active in Malabar.
• The formation of the Malabar District Congress Committee and the Home Rule League propelled the movement.
• Leaders: C. Kunhirama Menon, K. Kelappan, K. P. Kesava Menon, Muhammed Abdur Rahiman Sahib.
• Salt Satyagraha: Part of the Civil Disobedience Movement, centered in Payyannur in Malabar. Led by K. Kelappan.
• Also, under Muhammad Abdur Rahman, Satyagrahis made salt on the Kozhikode beach.
• Malabar Rebellion (1921): Anti-British and
anti-landlord movement, resulting from the merger of the tenant movement
with the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movements.
• Spread to Eranad, Valluvanad, and Ponnani. Suppressed by the British using the Malabar Special Police.
• Leaders: Ali Musliyar, Variyankunnath Kunjahammed Haji, and M. P. Narayana Menon.
• Wagon Massacre: Tragic incident where prisoners were transported without lighting or ventilation in a goods train, causing many deaths.
• Quit India Movement (1942): Kerala actively participated. Keezhariyur bomb case (manufacture of bombs to frighten the British) was a major incident.
Page 287-291: National Movement in Kochi and Travancore
• Kochi: Initial protests aimed at good governance, later for political rights.
◦ Electricity Strike (1936): Against Diwan R. K. Shanmukham Chetty’s decision to privatize Thrissur’s electricity supply.
◦ Kochi Rajya Praja Mandal (1941): Aimed at achieving responsible government. Leaders: Ikkanda Warrier, Panampilly Govinda Menon.
• Travancore:
◦ Malayali Memorial (1891): Petition led by G. P. Pillai, demanding adequate representation of Travancore people in government jobs.
◦ Ezhava Memorial (1896): Petition led by Dr. P. Palpu, demanding adequate representation of the Ezhava community.
◦ Abstention Movement (Nivarthanam) (1932): Joint
agitation by Christian, Muslim, and Ezhava communities demanding
proportional representation in jobs and the Legislative Assembly.
Leaders: C. Kesavan, N. V. Joseph, P. K. Kunju.
◦ Travancore State Congress: Carried out agitations for responsible government. First President: Pattom Thanu Pillai.
Page 292-298: Other Movements and Women's Participation
• Congress Socialist Party (1934): Formed within the
INC by workers interested in socialist ideas. Led by P. Krishna Pillai,
E. M. Sankaran Namboothiripad, and A. K. Gopalan.
• Punnapra-Vayalar Struggle (1946): Against the tyranny of Diwan C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, demanding responsible government.
• Women’s Participation: Malayali women actively participated in the freedom struggle, embracing Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience.
• Key Women Leaders: A. V. Kuttimalu Amma and Ammu Swaminathan (Malabar), Akkamma Cheriyan and Annie Mascarene (Travancore).
• Kaumudi Teacher: Known for donating her gold ornaments to Gandhiji during a public meeting in Vadakara, inspired by his call to help the hungry.
Page 298-302: Formation of Kerala State (Aikya Kerala)
• Aikya Kerala Movement: Aimed to organize the separate
administrative regions (Travancore, Kochi, British Indian provinces,
Mayyazhi) into a single, self-governing unit for Malayalam speakers.
• Key Events: All Kerala Provincial Conference at
Ottapalam (1921); Payyannur Congress Conference (1928, chaired by
Jawaharlal Nehru) demanded reorganization based on language.
• Thiru-Kochi Formation: Travancore and Kochi merged on July 1, 1949.
• Formation of Kerala State: Based on the
recommendations of the Fazal Ali Commission, the state of Kerala came
into existence on November 1, 1956, merging Malabar and Thiru-Kochi.
• The first ministry, under the leadership of E. M. S. Namboodiripad, assumed power on April 5, 1957.
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 8)
Q1. What were the defensive strategies adopted by Pazhassi Raja against the English East India Company?
A. He shifted his base to Wayanad, mobilized local people, and waged guerrilla warfare.
Q2. Who were the major leaders of the Malabar Rebellion of 1921?
A. Ali Musliyar, Variyankunnath Kunjahammed Haji, and M. P. Narayana Menon.
Q3. What was the significance of the Temple Entry Proclamation (1936)?
A. Issued by Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma, it
opened the temples of Travancore to all sections of Hindus, and was
described by Gandhiji as a ‘miracle of modern times’.
Q4. List the objectives of the Kochi Rajya Praja Mandal.
A. The main aim was to achieve responsible government.
Q5. Explain the importance of the two major memorials submitted in Travancore.
A. Malayali Memorial (1891): Demanded adequate representation of Travancore people in government jobs. Ezhava Memorial (1896): Demanded adequate representation of the Ezhava community in government service.
Q6. What was the aim of the Aikya Kerala Movement?
A. To unite the princely states of Travancore and
Kochi, the British Indian provinces, and Mayyazhi, into a single,
self-governing unit (Kerala) based on geographical, linguistic, and
cultural considerations.
Chapter 13: Building New Nations
Page 437-442: American War of Independence (Causes)
• Declaration of Independence (18th Century): Stated
that all men are created equal, endowed with unalienable rights (Life,
Liberty, Well-being), and that people have the right to alter or abolish
a destructive government.
• Colonial Control: Pilgrim Fathers (Puritans)
established colonies (like Plymouth/Massachusetts) in North America.
Governors appointed by the King of England led to discontentment.
• Trade Control (Navigation Laws): Britain imposed laws turning the colonies into a trade monopoly.
◦ Goods transport only on British ships or colony ships.
◦ Goods (wool, tobacco, sails) could only be sent to Europe via England.
◦ Stamp Act (1765): Insisted legal documents/pamphlets be marked with a fixed value stamp (repealed in 1766, but Parliament kept the right to tax).
• Boston Tea Party (1773): Protesters dressed as Red Indians threw chests of tea (mandated by the Tea Act) into the sea.
• Other Factors: Colonists' fear of the French
disappeared after the Seven Year War (1756-1763); colonists gained
military experience; awareness of their own strength.
Page 443-448: Continental Congress and Independence
• Continental Congress (Philadelphia): Representatives assembled to address British laws.
◦ First Congress (1774): Decided to suspend trade with Britain; submitted the Olive Branch Petition.
◦ Second Congress (1775): War with Britain commenced; George Washington appointed Commander-in-Chief.
◦ Third Congress (1776): Issued the famous Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson.
• Philosophical Influence: James Otis ('No taxation without representation'); John Locke ('Man has certain fundamental rights').
• Achieving Independence: American army defeated
English army at Yorktown (1781). Britain accepted independence of the 13
colonies via the Treaty of Paris (1783).
• Drafting the Constitution: Framework called Articles
of Confederation drafted. The new US Constitution was written and
established a federal system. George Washington elected first President.
• Relevance of War of Independence: Gave energy to
anti-colonial struggles globally; contributed the concept of federal
government; established the first written constitution; contributed the
idea of modern republican government.
Page 449-454: American Civil War (1861-1865)
• Background (Diverse States): Northern States favored
industry, commerce, and education; Southern States favored agriculture,
plantations, and depended on Northern States/England for industrial
products.
• Slavery: Europeans brought African slaves for
agricultural purposes. The Northern states discouraged it; Southern
states argued it was necessary for plantation agriculture.
• Anti-Slavery Movement: Strengthened by the newspaper The Liberator and Harriet Beecher Stowe’s book Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
• From Ballot to Battlefield: Abraham Lincoln (Republican Party, committed to ending slavery) elected President in 1860.
• Thirteen Southern states left the Union, forming the ‘Confederate States of America’. The ensuing conflict was the Civil War.
• Victory and Emancipation: Union States won the Battle
of Gettysburg (1863). Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on
January 1, 1863, freeing the slaves.
• Lincoln was assassinated in 1865. He defined democracy as “government of the people, by the people, and for the people”.
Page 455-465: Russian Revolution
• Tsarist Rule: Autocratic rulers known as Tsars (e.g., Tsar Nicholas II).
• Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905): People (led by Father Gapon) marched to St. Petersburg requesting reforms; the army opened fire, killing workers.
• Duma: Parliament agreed to by the Tsar in response to popular outrage, but the Tsar rejected its reforms.
• Miserable Conditions: Workers faced low wages, poor
conditions, long hours, and foreign capitalist dominance. Peasants were
oppressed, paying extremely high taxes.
• Political Parties: Social Democratic Workers’ Party split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
• Influence of Ideas: Writings of Leo Tolstoy, Maxim
Gorky; Communist Manifesto (Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels) sparked
revolution. Marxist ideology: political/social activities determined by
the mode of production; workers are the basis of production.
• February Revolution (March 1917): Women workers led a
strike in Petrograd; soldiers joined them. Tsar Nicholas II deposed. A
provisional government formed under Menshevik leader Aleksandr Kerensky.
• October Revolution: Led by Lenin (Bolshevik leader). He argued the Provisional Government served capitalists.
• Lenin’s Ideas (April Theses): Power to the workers' councils (Soviets); Peace for all; Food for the starving; Land to the peasants.
• The Bolsheviks (using the Red Guard military unit) seized key establishments and the Winter Palace, overthrowing Kerensky.
• Post-Revolution Reforms: Private land confiscated and
distributed; major economic sectors nationalized; factories controlled
by Soviets; Russia withdrew from World War I; formed the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR).
• New Economic Policy (NEP, 1921): Partial return to
private trade, agriculture, and investment; cooperative sector
encouraged; strict government control prevented capitalism revival.
Page 466-474: China on the Path of Revolution
• Foreign Intervention: European powers (with commercial interest) made huge profits from China via the opium trade.
• Opium War: War between China and Britain after opium use spread; China was defeated.
• Treaty of Nanking: Major ports (Canton, Amoy, Ningbo, Shanghai) opened to foreign trade.
• Boxer Rebellion: Resistance against European invasion led by the secret agency Boxers (symbol: Boxers Fist).
• End of Monarchy: Led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen. He put forward the ideas of nationalism, democracy, and socialism.
• Kuomintang Party: Formed to overthrow the Manchu dynasty. A republican government was formed after the 1911 Revolution.
• People's Republic of China: Chinese Communist Party (1921) formed under Mao Zedong.
• Chiang Kai-shek (came to power after Sun Yat-sen's death) opened key sectors to foreign powers, increasing foreign control.
• Long March (1934): Organized by Mao Zedong and the
Red Army, rallying peasants and workers, liberating farmlands and
distributing them to peasants.
• On October 1, 1949, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, China was declared the People’s Republic of China.
• Results of Revolution: Foreign domination ended;
socialist ideas spread; agricultural land distributed; economic reforms
implemented (The Great Leap Forward).
SCERT Based Questions and Most Important Questions (Chapter 13)
Q1. What three unalienable rights were mentioned in the American Declaration of Independence?
A. The right to Life, Liberty, and Well-being.
Q2. What famous slogan did James Otis propose during the American independence movement?
A. 'No taxation without representation'.
Q3. Name the two leaders who formulated Marxist ideology.
A. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Q4. State Lenin’s four main revolutionary ideas (slogans) during the October Revolution.
A. Power to the workers' councils (Soviets), Peace for all, Food for the starving, and Land to the peasants.
Q5. Who is known as the father of the Chinese revolution and what were his main ideological contributions?
A. Dr. Sun Yat-sen. His main ideas were nationalism, democracy, and socialism.
Q6. What was the Opium War?
A. A war between China and Britain that resulted from
European traders making huge profits from opium trade in China, harming
public health and draining national wealth. China was defeated, leading
to the Treaty of Nanking.
