SSLC II Term Notes SS1&2 English

👉Malayalam  

 Chapter 3: From The Rainy Forests to The Land of Permafrost

Introduction, Equatorial Climatic Region

• The chapter begins with a description of a traveler's visit from the Equatorial region (Congo) to the Tundra (Naryan-Mar).
• Question: In which climatic region do Congo and the town of Naryan-Mar belong?
  Answer: Congo - Equatorial Climatic Region; Naryan-Mar - Tundra Region.

Equatorial Climatic Region:

• Location: Extends up to 10° north and south of the equator.
• Major Areas: Amazon Basin, Central Africa, Southeast Asia.
• Major Countries: Indonesia, Malay Peninsula, New Guinea, Democratic Republic of Congo, Brazil.
• This region gets its name because it receives vertical sun rays throughout the year.

Climatic Features

• Temperature: The annual average temperature is around 27°C. The annual temperature range is low.
• Winter: Not experienced. High temperatures are maintained throughout the year.
• Rainfall: Abundant rainfall throughout the year (175 cm - 250 cm).
• Convectional Rainfall: Heavy rainfall occurs daily in the afternoon.
• Orographic Rainfall: Orographic rain is also received in the mountainous regions of Indonesia and Africa.
• Dry Season: There is no dry season in this region.
• Doldrums: Due to the constant low pressure at the equator, horizontal air movement is low. This windless zone is called the Doldrums.
• Question: Why is Mount Kilimanjaro, despite being in the equatorial region, covered in snow all year round?
  Answer: The temperature is low and it is covered with snow due to the high altitude.
• Harmattan: A local wind blowing on the Guinean coast helps to lower the temperature at night.

Flora and Fauna
Natural Vegetation:

• Tropical Rainforests: The main feature of this region. They are found in the Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, and Southeast Asia.
• Key Point: These areas are called the 'Lungs of the World' because of their dense rainforests, as they absorb CO2 and produce oxygen.
• Tropical Evergreen Forests: The forests remain green throughout the year as there is no specific season for shedding leaves.
• Selvas: The rainforests of the Amazon Basin.
• Major Trees: Ebony, Mahogany, Cinchona, Rosewood.
• Canopy Layers: Trees form different layers (Lower, Intermediate, Upper Layer) at different heights according to the availability of sunlight.
• Belukar: Secondary forests that grow in areas abandoned after cultivation (in Malaysia).

Fauna:

• Arboreal Animals: Most of the animals are tree-dwelling (e.g., Lemur, Chimpanzee, Orangutan).
• Less Undergrowth: Due to the dense forest, sunlight does not reach the ground, so herbivores are few.

Human Life
Human Life:

• Population: Generally low.
• Major Tribes: Pygmies in Africa, Indian tribes in the Amazon Basin, Orang Asli in Malaysia.
• Key Point:
  Pygmies: Indigenous people of the Congo Basin. Hunting and gathering are their main livelihoods. They are nomads living in temporary shelters.
• Farming Method: Slash-and-burn agriculture or shifting cultivation.
• Plantation Crops: With the arrival of Europeans, the cultivation of rubber, cocoa, and oil palm became widespread.
• Key Point: Malaysia and Indonesia are leaders in rubber production.
• Housing: Houses are built using locally available resources.
• Key Point:
  Maloca: Houses in the Amazon Basin (with steep sloping roofs).
  Kampongs: Wooden houses in Malaysian villages.
• Modern Cities: Iquitos, Quito, Bogota, Singapore, and Manaus are major cities.

Challenges, Tundra Region
Challenges:

• Most Important Questions (Challenges): What are the challenges faced by equatorial rainforests?
  Answer: 1. Diseases and pests due to high temperature and humidity (Sleeping sickness, Yellow fever).
  2. Lack of infrastructure development (roads, rail) due to dense forests.
  3. Difficulty in commercial logging (logs are heavy and difficult to float).
  4. Deforestation due to human interventions (agriculture, mining, urbanization).
• Diseases: 'Sleeping sickness' spread by tsetse flies and 'Yellow fever' spread by mosquitoes are common.
• Transportation: As it is difficult to build roads, rivers are the main mode of transport.
• Deforestation: Deforestation is occurring here, which is home to one-third of the world's forests, due to agriculture, mining, and urbanization.

Tundra Region:

• Located to the north of the Taiga region.
• Areas: Arctic coasts of North America and Eurasia, Greenland.
• Sub-divisions: Arctic Tundra (Alaska, Northern Canada, Siberia), Alpine Tundra (high mountain areas).

Tundra Climate and Vegetation
Climatic Features (Arctic or Polar Climate):

• Feature: Very short summers, long winters.
• Temperature: -25°C to -35°C in winter. In summer, it will be above 0°C for a few weeks.
• Polar Night: North of the Arctic Circle, the sun may not set or rise for weeks (about 6 months of night and 6 months of day).
• Rainfall: In the form of snowfall during winter.
• Blizzards: Strong snowstorms.

Natural Vegetation:

• Trees are not commonly found.
• Plants: Mosses, Lichens, Bushes, Dwarf Willows, Stunted Birches, Hardy Grasses.

Fauna and Human Life
Fauna:

• Major Animals: Arctic Fox, Wolves, Polar Bears, Musk-oxen, Arctic Hares.

Human Life:

• Population: Very low, only on the coasts.
• Major Tribes: Eskimos (Inuit) in Greenland/Canada, Samoyeds in Siberia, Koryaks in Northeast Asia.
• Livelihood: Hunting (whales, seals), fishing.
• Housing: Igloos made of snow in winter. Tents made of animal skins in summer.
• Transportation: Sledges pulled by dogs for travel on snow.
• Modernization: Eskimos now use speed boats. Schools have been established.

Climate Change:

• Most Important Question: How does global warming affect the Tundra region?
  Answer: Global warming is causing the permafrost in the Tundra to melt, which adversely affects the ecosystem there.
• The Tundra region is adversely affected by climate change.

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Chapter 5: Money and Economy

Functions of Money

• The exchange of goods and services became faster with the advent of money.
• General Functions of Money:
• Most Important Questions: What are the main functions of money?
  Answer: Medium of exchange, measure of value, store of value, and means of deferred payments.
  1. Medium of Exchange: Used to buy and sell goods and services (e.g., wages received in money).
  2. Measure of Value: The value of all goods can be expressed in money.
  3. Store of Value: Even the value of perishable goods can be stored as money for future use.
  4. Means of Deferred Payments: Money is used for lending and borrowing.
• Value of Money: The purchasing power of money is its value. When prices increase, purchasing power decreases.
• Features of Money: Generally accepted, durable, and easy to handle.

Functions of the RBI

• Velocity of Circulation of Money: This indicates how many times a unit of money is exchanged within a certain period. (An increase in this indicates economic growth).

Reserve Bank of India (RBI):

• India's central bank. Established on April 1, 1935; nationalized in 1949.
• Functions of the RBI:
• Most Important Question: What are the main functions of the RBI?
  1. Prints and distributes currency: The RBI issues all currencies except for coins and one-rupee notes.
• SCERT Question: Who prints one-rupee notes and coins?
  Answer: The Ministry of Finance.
• Demonetization: Withdrawal of currencies in circulation (e.g., November 8, 2016).
  2. Banker to Banks: Lends to commercial banks, holds their reserves.

Inflation and Control
3. Controls the supply of money and credit:
* Inflation: A situation where prices increase when there is more money in the economy than production.
* Inflation is measured using the Consumer Price Index (CPI).
* Credit Control Measures: The RBI uses quantitative and qualitative measures to control inflation.

• Most Important Question: How does the RBI control inflation?
  Answer (Quantitative Measures): 1. Increase the Repo Rate and Reverse Repo Rate (RBI raises these rates when inflation is high). 2. Increase the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) (to reduce lending by banks).
• Repo Rate: The interest rate at which commercial banks borrow from the RBI.
• Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): Banks must keep a portion of their deposits as reserves with the RBI.

4. Banker to the Government: Maintains government accounts; advises on fiscal and monetary policy.
5. Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: The RBI holds foreign currencies and gold reserves.

Commercial Banks and Deposits
Banks and NBFIs:

• Commercial Banks: Licensed by the RBI.
• Cooperative Banks: Ownership is vested in the members (Kerala Bank is an example).

Main Functions of Commercial Banks:

1. Accepting Deposits:

• SCERT Question: What are the different types of deposit accounts offered by banks?
  • Savings Deposit: Restrictions on withdrawals, low interest.
  • Current Deposit: For business transactions, no interest, overdraft facility available.
  • Fixed Deposit: For a long term, high interest.
  • Recurring Deposit: A fixed amount is deposited at regular intervals.

2. Lending Loans:
   • Spread: The difference between the interest paid to depositors and the interest charged on loans (the bank's income).
   • Collateral: Gold, land documents, salary certificates are accepted as collateral for loans.

Technology and NBFIs
Banks and Technology:

• Services are available 24/7 through mobile and online banking.
• NEFT (National Electronic Fund Transfer System): For fast fund transfers.
• RTGS (Real Time Gross Settlement): For quick transfer of large amounts.
• Core Banking: A system that allows transactions from any branch.
• UPI (Universal Payment Interface): A mobile payment system for real-time money transfers.

Non-Banking Financial Institutions (NBFI):

• SCERT Question: What are the features of Non-Banking Financial Institutions?
  Answer: 1. They do not perform all the functions of banks. 2. They cannot accept savings/current deposits from the public. 3. Money cannot be withdrawn via checks.
• Examples: Insurance companies (LIC), mutual fund companies, KSFE.
• Regulation: RBI, SEBI, IRDA, NHB.

Credit Sources, Financial Inclusion
Credit Sources in India:

• Formal Sources: Banks, NBFIs, SHGs, Microfinance institutions.
• Informal Sources: Local moneylenders, friends, relatives.
• Credit-Deposit Ratio: Measures what portion of a bank's deposits is given out as loans.

Financial Inclusion:

• Most Important Question: What steps has the government taken to promote financial inclusion?
  Answer: 1. Nationalization of banks (1969 & 1980). 2. Cooperative banking system. 3. Microfinance institutions (Kudumbashree). 4. Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana.
• The goal is to make banking services available to the common man and the marginalized.
• Microfinance: Provides financial services to low-income earners (e.g., Kudumbashree).
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Account: A scheme to open bank accounts for those without one, with zero balance.
• Promotes a cashless economy by reducing cash transactions.

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Chapter 6: The Changing Earth

Disasters and Earth Movements

• The landslide that occurred in Meppadi, Wayanad district on July 30, 2024, is given as an example to understand the severity of disasters.

Key Terms:

• Hazard: A situation that poses a threat to life, health, and property.
• Disaster: A serious disruption that causes widespread damage and exceeds the ability of the affected community to cope using its own resources. (A hazard does not always become a disaster).
• Risk: The measure of potential loss from a particular hazard.
• Vulnerability: The susceptibility of an area to damage from a hazard's impact.
• Capacity: The resources a community has to cope with a disaster.
• Earth Movements: Movements that cause elevations and depressions on the Earth's surface.

Classification of Movements
Classification of Earth Movements: Divided into two based on the causative forces:

• Most Important Question: What are the forces that cause endogenic and exogenic movements?
  Endogenic Forces: Radioactivity, primordial heat, rotation, convection currents.
  Exogenic Forces: Slope, gravity, flowing water, glaciers, wind, chemical reactions.

1. Endogenic Movements: Caused by forces within the Earth.
   • Convection Currents: The cyclical movement of magma in the mantle due to temperature variations.
2. Exogenic Movements: Caused by external forces on the Earth's surface.

Classification of Endogenic Movements:

• SCERT Question: What is the difference between epeirogenic and orogenic movements?
• Slow Movements (Diastrophic movements):
  Answer:
  Epeirogenic (Continent-forming): Uplifts large parts of the Earth's crust (less deformation).
  Orogenic (Mountain-forming): Formation of mountains (severe deformation).
• Epeirogenic Movements: Uplifting large parts of the Earth's crust.
• Orogenic Movements: Causes the formation of mountains (fold mountains).
• Sudden Movements: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions.
• Horst: A block of land uplifted due to faulting.
• Graben: A block of land that has sunk downwards.

Volcanoes and Distribution
Volcanism:

• Lithosphere: The crust and the upper part of the mantle.
• Asthenosphere: The zone below the lithosphere where molten rocks are found.
• Magma: Molten rock material in the upper mantle.
• Lava: What magma is called when it reaches the surface.
• Volcanism: Processes such as magma formation, movement, eruption, and lava flow.
• SCERT Question: What is the difference between lava and magma?
• Classification: Shield Volcano, Composite Volcano, Calderas (Example: Deccan Province).
• Distribution: Mainly on plate margins (Example: Pacific Ring of Fire).

Disaster Mitigation, Benefits
Disaster Mitigation:

• Most Important Question: What are the precautions that can be taken to mitigate disasters from volcanic eruptions?
  Answer: 1. Avoid houses near the volcano. 2. Provide scientific monitoring and warnings. 3. Construct buildings resistant to lava and ash.

Benefits of Volcanic Eruptions:

• The soil formed from lava is fertile (suitable for agriculture).
• Geothermal Energy: Used to generate electricity.
• Mineral Richness: Lava contains many minerals.
• Tourism.

Earthquakes
Earthquakes:

• Cause: Energy is stored due to friction when lithospheric plates move and is suddenly released.
• Tectonic Earthquakes: Caused by plate movements.
• Hypocenter (Focus): The point within the Earth where energy is released.
• Epicenter: The point on the surface directly above the focus (where waves arrive first).
• Earthquake Waves: Surface waves are the most destructive.
• Measurements: Richter scale (magnitude), Seismograph (records waves).
• Shadow Zones: Areas where waves are not recorded.
• SCERT Question: The Himalayan regions have a high risk of earthquakes. Why?
  Answer: Because the Himalayas are located on plate margins and tectonic plate movements occur there.

Tsunami and Mitigation

• Disaster: Building destruction, transportation and communication disruptions, food shortages, landslides due to earthquakes.
• Most Important Question: Write in a chart the precautionary measures to be taken during an earthquake (before, during, after).
• Although earthquakes are difficult to predict, their intensity can be reduced through precautions.

Tsunami:

• Most Important Question: How are tsunamis formed?
  Answer: Strong earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and meteorite impacts on the ocean floor cause large waves.
• Safety Measures: If the sea level drops suddenly, move to higher ground immediately. If caught in water, hold on to floating objects.
• Warning System: DART (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) stations are used.

Exogenic Movements and Weathering
Exogenic Movements:

• Processes: Weathering, Erosion, Transportation, Deposition, Mass Wasting.
• Driving Forces: Flowing water, glaciers, wind, gravity, temperature changes.

Weathering: The process that brings about chemical and mechanical changes in rocks.

• SCERT Question: What are the human activities that cause weathering of rocks?
  Answer: Mining, Quarrying.
• Classification: Physical (expansion and contraction), Chemical (chemical reactions), Biological (roots).
• Benefits: Soil formation, separation of minerals, makes mining easier.

Mass Wasting: The downward movement of rock fragments or soil down a slope under the influence of gravity.

Landslides, Sustainable Development
Landslides - in Kerala:

• Debris Flow: A mixture of water, rock fragments, and soil flowing down a steep slope.
• Main Causes: Slope of the land (more than 22°), unscientific construction, over-exploitation, heavy rain, cloudburst (more than 10 cm of rain in an hour).
• Most Important Question: What are the factors that cause landslides?
  Answer: 1. Slope greater than 22°. 2. Heavy rain/cloudburst. 3. Unscientific construction activities (roads, houses).
• Soil Piping: The formation of channels underground as water flows through clay soil in laterite areas.
• Disaster Mitigation: Identify potential areas in advance using Remote Sensing and GIS.
• KaWaCHam: Kerala's disaster warning system.

Sustainable Development:

• Most Important Question: What is sustainable development?
  Answer: Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Goal: To protect the environment, and make resources available equitably.
• Major Report: The 1987 Brundtland Commission report ('Our Common Future').
• Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit 1992: Adopted Agenda 21.

Chapter 4: Wealth and the World

Introduction and Reasons for Explorations

• Two major events of the 15th century led to geographical explorations:
  1. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks.
  2. The arrival of the Portuguese on the Guinea coast of Africa.
• The main trade route through which goods from Asia (especially pepper) reached Europe was blocked by the fall of Constantinople.
• Europeans needed spices (mainly pepper) to preserve food and for medicinal purposes. This forced them to find new routes.

Factors that Aided Explorations

• Portugal and Spain were the first to begin these explorations.
• Factors that helped European countries in their explorations:
  • Construction of ships capable of crossing large oceans.
  • Invention of instruments like the compass for direction finding.
  • Patronage from rulers.
  • Strong military capability.
  • Extensive experience in sea voyages.
  • Advancements in cartography (map-making) and astronomy.

Major Explorations and Colonization

• The early explorations of Europeans were in the African continent.
• Portuguese Explorations:
  • Portugal turned to Africa after learning about gold deposits in the Niger plains.
  • In 1415, they captured the city of Ceuta on the Moroccan coast.
  • After crossing Cape Bojador (1434), they gained access to more African coasts, profiting from the gold and slave trade.
  • They established colonies by developing agriculture in the Atlantic islands.
  • Bartolomeu Dias: Reached the Cape of Good Hope, the southern tip of Africa, in 1488.
  • Vasco da Gama: Followed the same path and reached Kappad beach in Calicut, India, in 1498. This marked the beginning of European dominance in India.
• Spanish Explorations:
  • Christopher Columbus: With the help of Spain, he reached the Bahama Islands in the southeastern part of North America in 1492. This led to the discovery of the American continent, known as the "New World".
  • Amerigo Vespucci: In his honor, after he recognized that Columbus had discovered a new continent, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller named the region America in 1507.
  • Prince Henry (Portugal): Established a naval school in Portugal in 1419 and encouraged sea voyages.
• Ferdinand Magellan: The first person to circumnavigate the world by sea.
• Colonization: The process by which one country establishes dominance over another foreign country.

Results of Geographical Explorations

• Results of the explorations:
  • The Atlantic coast became a major trade route. Mediterranean trade declined, and Atlantic trade rose.
  • European invasion and colonization in America, Africa, and Asia.
  • Europeans attempted to establish a monopoly on the Asian spice trade.
  • Large amounts of gold and silver flowed from South America to Europe.
  • A triangular trade system developed, connecting Europe, Africa, and America.
  • The influx of gold and silver increased the use of money in Europe and accelerated monetisation.

Mercantilism and Colonial Policies

• Mercantilism: An economic policy aimed at increasing a nation's wealth and power by accumulating gold and silver.
• Features:
  • A country's wealth was determined by the amount of gold and silver it possessed.
  • To retain wealth (Bullion), they reduced imports and increased exports.
• Colonial Policies: Strategies used by colonial powers to exploit wealth from the colonies.
  • Portugal: To break the Arab monopoly on the Asian spice trade. The trade in colonies was made a monopoly of the Portuguese king.
  • Spain: Direct control by the king to extract maximum gold and silver from the colonies.
  • Dutch, English: Traded through joint-stock companies. Profits were reinvested in industries, which led to industrial growth in England.

Consequences of Colonization

• Other effects of colonization on the indigenous population:
  • Slave trade in Africa.
  • Wealth flowed to Europe.
  • Natives lost their economic and political rights.
  • Indigenous cultures were destroyed.
  • Western lifestyle spread, and Christianity was propagated.
• Merchant Capitalism: Merchants provided raw materials to artisans, who then manufactured products, and the merchants earned a profit.
• Industrial Capitalism: A system where wealth was invested in industries to make a profit. It came after merchant capitalism.

Industrial Revolution

• Industrial Revolution: The period between 1780 and 1850 when major changes were made in the production process using machines. It began in the textile industry.
• Major Changes:
  • Production was mechanised.
  • Advancements in metallurgy to produce better tools.
  • Steam was used as a source of power.
  • Transportation facilities developed.
  • Production shifted from cottages to factories.
• Merits and Demerits of the Industrial Revolution:
  | Merits | Demerits |
  | :--- | :--- |
  | Growth of factories | Exploitation of workers |
  | Increased production | Poverty, epidemics |
  | New job opportunities | Low wages for women and children, long working hours |
  | Urbanization | Growth of slums |
• Socialism: The main principles of socialism were the equal distribution of goods and resources and public ownership of the means of production. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels provided its scientific basis.

Imperialism

• Imperialism: The system in which a country establishes and maintains political, economic, and social control over territories beyond its own borders.
• Reasons:
  • To secure raw materials for factories.
  • To find markets to sell products.
  • To ensure these arrangements, European countries established political control over the colonies.

First World War (1914-1918)

• New imperialist powers (Germany, Italy, USA, Japan) competed with old powers (England, France) for colonies, which led to war.
• Causes of the War:
  • Imperialist Rivalry: The growth of Germany threatened England and France. The Berlin-Baghdad railway line worried England, France, and Russia.
  • Extreme Nationalism: Excessive devotion to one's own country, which was linked to racism. The Pan-Slav movement (led by Serbia) and the Pan-German movement (led by Germany) are examples.
  • Formation of Military Alliances: Countries formed alliances out of fear.
    • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.
    • Triple Entente: England, Russia, France.
  • Immediate Cause: On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (July 28, 1914).
• Post-War Consequences:
  • Millions of soldiers and civilians were killed.
  • European dominance began to decline.
  • Freedom movements in Asia and Africa strengthened.
  • The League of Nations was formed (for world peace).
  • Totalitarian regimes emerged in Italy, Germany, and Spain.

Growth of Totalitarianism in Europe

• Totalitarianism: A system in which the state exercises absolute control over all aspects of the country, ignoring civil rights.
• Features of Totalitarianism:
  • Rejected democracy.
  • Opposed socialism.
  • Supported dictatorship.
  • Extreme nationalism.
  • Eliminated political opponents.
  • Glorified war and violence.
• Fascism in Italy:
  • Founder: Benito Mussolini.
  • Formed a military unit called the Blackshirts.
  • Seized power in 1922 with a march on Rome.
• Nazism in Germany:
  • Founder: Adolf Hitler.
  • Formed a military unit called the Brownshirts.
  • Attempted to eliminate communists, socialists, and Jews.
  • Formed a secret police force called the Gestapo for espionage.
  • Hitler's aggressiveness led to the Second World War.

Second World War (1939-1945)

• Causes of the War:
  • Treaty of Versailles: After the First World War, Germany lost its colonies, its military was reduced, and heavy war reparations were imposed. The Second World War was a German rebellion against this treaty.
  • Failure of the League of Nations: The League failed to intervene in the aggressions of Japan, Italy, and Germany.
  • Military Alliances:
    • Axis Powers: Italy, Germany, Japan.
    • Allied Powers: England, China, France (later USSR, USA).
  • Policy of Appeasement: To prevent the spread of socialist ideas, Western countries turned a blind eye to fascist aggressions. The Munich Agreement (which gave Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to Hitler) is an example.
  • Start of the War: On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland.
• Consequences of the War:
  • Millions of people died, famine, epidemics.
  • The European economy collapsed. Europe's dominance ended.
  • The United Nations Organization (UNO) was formed (October 24, 1945).
  • Colonies in Asia and Africa gained independence.
  • The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as global powers.

The Post-War World

• Cold War: The ideological confrontation between the capitalist bloc (led by the USA) and the socialist bloc (led by the USSR) after the Second World War. It was not a period of direct war or peace. It ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): A group of countries that remained independent without joining either bloc.
• Neo-Colonialism: The way the USA exploited newly independent countries by providing financial aid. It was another form of capitalism.
• Finance Capitalism: An economy where financial institutions like banking and insurance play a major role. It gives more importance to financial exchange than to production.

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Chapter 4: Learning Aids

SCERT Based Questions and Answers (Q&A)
Learning Activities & Discussion Points

1. Prepare a digital album illustrating the results of geographical explorations and the changes they brought to trade dominance.
   • Answer (Main Results): The Atlantic coast became a major trade route. Mediterranean trade collapsed. European colonization in America, Africa, and Asia. Attempts to establish a monopoly on the Asian spice trade. The triangular trade came into existence.
2. Discuss the features of Mercantilism and prepare a note.
   • Answer: Gold and silver measured a country's wealth. They tried to retain wealth (Bullion) by reducing imports and increasing exports.
3. How did the effective use of wealth help in the industrialization of England?
   • Answer: Joint-stock companies in England and the Netherlands reinvested profits from the colonies in industries instead of building palaces. This played a crucial role in England's economic development and industrialization.
4. How does industrial capitalism differ from merchant capitalism?
   • Answer: In merchant capitalism, merchants provided raw materials to artisans to produce goods (cottage-based production). In industrial capitalism, industrialists increased production using machines in factories and earned profits.
5. Compare the causes and consequences of the two World Wars.
   • Answer (Comparison):
     • Causes: Both had imperialist rivalry and military alliances. The First World War was caused by extreme nationalism (Pan-Slav, Pan-German). The Second World War was caused by Germany's reaction to the Treaty of Versailles and the failure of the policy of appeasement.
     • Consequences: Millions died in both, and there was economic collapse. The League of Nations was formed after World War I. The United Nations (UNO) was formed after World War II. World War II ended Europe's dominance and led to the Cold War.

Most Important Questions (MIQs)

1. What were the factors that motivated European countries for geographical explorations?
2. Note the significance of Vasco da Gama's arrival in India.
3. What is Mercantilism? Explain its objectives.
4. What were the major changes that led to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in England?
5. Analyze the relationship between imperialism and the World Wars.
6. Explain the concept of 'Extreme Nationalism' that led to the First World War.
7. What were the common features of totalitarian regimes (Fascism, Nazism)?

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Chapter 5: Public Opinion in Democracy

Introduction and Public Opinion

• In a democracy, the government formulates policies by considering public opinions.
• Grama Sabha/Ward Sabha: A local body that discusses local issues and development matters and seeks public opinion.
• Civil Society: Organizations and individuals who work for the welfare of society, without profit motive and without government control.
• Public Opinion: The general opinion on issues affecting people. The stand that a group of people generally holds on a particular issue.
• Democracy is strengthened when public opinion becomes strong.

Features of Public Opinion

• Public opinion reflects various opinions.
• It is not necessarily the opinion of the majority, but a general consensus on an issue.
• Public opinion may change with circumstances, time, and new knowledge.
• Public opinion is formed not only on political matters but also on social, economic, and cultural issues.
• Public opinion ensures democratic communication.

Agencies that Shape Public Opinion

1. Family: A child's socialization begins in the family. The first stage of opinion formation takes place when the child participates in or witnesses discussions on political, religious, and literary topics.
2. Educational Institutions: Education helps a person to form an independent and rational opinion. School parliaments and club activities are platforms that foster democratic and civic sense.
3. Peer Groups: A group of people of similar age and interests. They help in forming common opinions by discussing public issues.

Media

• Newspapers: Bring political and social events to the people. They strengthen the democratic process by conveying public opinions to the government. Biased and non-factual news can mislead public opinion.
• Radio, Television: Play a key role in forming ideas and knowledge among the illiterate.
• Social Media: Digital and social media have a major role in shaping public opinion.
• Fake News: The spread of fake news through social media misleads public opinion.
• Media Literacy: The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create new messages through media.
• Digital Literacy: The ability to find and efficiently evaluate information using digital tools and technology.

Other Agencies

• Political Parties and Activities: Encourage people to think politically about public issues. They use journals, manifestos, and demonstrations to propagate their own ideas.
• Social Institutions and Organizations: Religious institutions, student movements, trade unions, and environmental organizations play a role in shaping public opinion.
• Opinion Poll: An effective way to collect public opinions on social, cultural, political, and economic issues.
• Art and Literature: The art and literature of each era influence the formation of public opinion. Mahakavi Kumaran Asan's "Chandalabhikshuki" is an example of forming an opinion against the caste system.

Factors that Hinder the Formation of Public Opinion

• Illiteracy: Provides only limited knowledge about public issues.
• Digital Divide: The gap in access to modern information technology like the internet and computers.
• Poverty: People suffering from poverty are isolated from public affairs.
• Unhealthy Political Activity: Partisanship and polarization in political parties.
• Unhealthy practices in election campaigns: Wrong methods used to influence voters hinder the formation of genuine public opinion.
• Other factors: Corruption, regionalism, hero worship.
• Conclusion: In a society where strong public opinion exists, autocratic tendencies are prevented, and the rights and freedoms of citizens are protected.

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Chapter 5: Learning Aids

SCERT Based Questions and Answers (Q&A)
Learning Activities & Discussion Points

1. Discuss the role of new media in shaping public opinion and prepare a note.
   • Answer: Social media helps to spread news quickly. The public can directly record their opinions and organize discussions. However, fake news and misinformation can mislead public opinion.
2. What are the various methods adopted by political parties to shape public opinion?
   • Answer: They organize demonstrations, journals, pamphlets, manifestos, rallies, and seminars. While ruling parties propagate policies favorably, the opposition brings the government's shortcomings to the people.
3. Complete the factors in the formation of public opinion.
   • Completed: Illiteracy, digital divide, poverty, unhealthy political activity, unhealthy practices in election campaigns.
4. The role of public opinion formation in strengthening the democratic process.
   • Answer: Public opinion makes rulers accountable. It corrects the limitations of democracy through criticism. It prevents autocratic tendencies. It protects the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Most Important Questions (MIQs)

1. What are the features of Public Opinion?
2. Explain the role of educational institutions and the family in shaping public opinion in a democracy.
3. How do digital and media literacy affect public opinion?
4. Write any four factors that hinder the formation of public opinion.

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Chapter 6: Mass Movement for Freedom

The Rise of Gandhi

• Mahatma Gandhi: The person who transformed India's freedom struggle into a mass movement. The Father of the Nation.
• Gandhi was able to unite various sections of society like farmers, workers, women, and students and make them participate in the struggle.
• Political Training in South Africa: Gandhi spent 20 years in South Africa. He fought against racial discrimination. It was there that he developed the method of Satyagraha based on non-violence. He returned to India in 1915.

Local Movements
Early movements in which Gandhi participated in India:

1. Champaran (1917, Bihar): Intervened in the problems of indigo farmers. Raj Kumar Shukla invited Gandhi. The British administration appointed a commission with Gandhi as a member to investigate the farmers' complaints.
2. Ahmedabad (1918, Gujarat): Participated in the struggle to increase the wages of textile mill workers. Gandhi went on a hunger strike. Subsequently, wages were increased.
3. Kheda (1918, Gujarat): Fought for farmers who could not pay taxes due to a natural disaster. The government agreed to give a tax exemption.

• Through these three movements, Gandhi's political ideology of non-violent Satyagraha became familiar to Indians.

British Repression and Resistance

• First World War (1914-1918) in India: Imposed additional taxes, severe food shortages due to the export of food grains, epidemics.
• Rowlatt Act (1919): This law, which abolished fundamental rights, gave the British the power to arrest anyone without a warrant and imprison them without trial.
• Gandhi called for a national hartal on April 6, 1919, against the Rowlatt Act. For this, he formed the 'Satyagraha Sabha'.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
  • People gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to protest the arrest of prominent Punjab leaders Dr. Satyapal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew.
  • Police opened fire without warning on the orders of General Reginald Dyer.
  • According to official figures, 379 people were killed.
• Hunter Commission: A commission appointed by the British government to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

Non-Cooperation Movement

• Towards a Mass Movement: As the anti-Rowlatt agitation was confined to cities, Gandhi needed to expand the movement to the villages. He realized that Hindu-Muslim unity was essential for national unity.
• Khilafat Movement: Started under the leadership of the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali with the aim of restoring the authority of the Caliph, the spiritual leader of the Islamic world, after Turkey's defeat in World War I.
• Non-Cooperation Movement: This non-violent movement was launched under the joint leadership of the Khilafat Committee and the Indian National Congress.
• Main Methods:
  • Return titles and honors given by the British government.
  • Boycott government jobs, courts, British-run schools, foreign goods, and legislative assemblies.
• New Programs: Strengthen social harmony, promote national products, propagate Khadi, establish national schools (e.g., Kashi Vidyapith, Gujarat Vidyapith, Jamia Millia Islamia).
• Participation of various sections:
  • Women: Boycotted foreign goods, collected and burned foreign clothes.
  • Workers: Workers from Buckingham and Carnatic Mills in Madras and the Assam-Bengal Railway participated in the strike.
  • Students: Boycotted government schools and colleges and joined national institutions.
  • Tribals: Defied British forest laws.
  • Farmers: Formed the Awadh Kisan Sabha (led by Jawaharlal Nehru). In Bengal, they decided to boycott jute cultivation and grow paddy and cotton.
  • Chirala-Perala: A protest where 15,000 people left the city against a tax increase.
• Chauri Chaura Incident (February 5, 1922, Uttar Pradesh): In a conflict between protesters and the police, an angry mob set fire to a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi called off the movement as the principle of non-violence was violated. Subhas Chandra Bose described this decision as a "national calamity".
• Hind Swaraj: A book written by Gandhi in 1909. He argued that if Indians stopped cooperating, British rule would end within a year.

Struggle in the Legislatures and Further Agitations

• Swaraj Party: A faction formed within the Congress in 1923 by C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru, who opposed the boycott of legislative assemblies during the Non-Cooperation Movement. The goal was to use the legislatures as a platform for political protest.
• Rampa Rebellion: A movement by the tribals of Andhra Pradesh against British forest laws and the exploitation of moneylenders. Alluri Sitarama Raju was the leader.
• Simon Go Back: A commission appointed by the British government (Sir John Simon) to recommend constitutional reforms. The Congress and other parties boycotted it as all seven members of the commission were British.
  • When the commission arrived in India on February 3, 1928, a hartal was observed.
  • Lala Lajpat Rai was seriously injured in a lathi charge in Lahore and later died.
  • The Nehru Committee Report (led by Motilal Nehru) was prepared to counter the British argument that Indians could not formulate constitutional reforms.
• Bardoli Peasant Movement (1928, Gujarat): A protest against increased taxes. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel led it. The government withdrew the tax.

Civil Disobedience Movement

• Lahore Congress (December 1929): A milestone in the history of India's freedom struggle.
  • Demanded Complete Independence (Purna Swaraj) for the first time.
  • Tasked Gandhi with starting a mass movement for this purpose.
  • The tricolor flag was formally adopted.
• Independence Day Celebration (January 26, 1930): Celebrated across the country as per the decision of the Lahore Congress. This is why January 26 was chosen as Republic Day.
• Dandi March: To start the movement for complete independence, Gandhi decided to break the salt law.
  • On March 12, 1930, Gandhi and 78 volunteers began the march to Dandi beach. It lasted 24 days.
  • On April 6, 1930, Gandhi started the Civil Disobedience Movement by making salt.
  • Salt Law: The government monopoly on salt production was described by Gandhi as an 'unjust monopoly'.
• Dharasana Satyagraha (1930): A salt satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu and Imam Sahib. The police brutally beat them.
• Participation: The Civil Disobedience Movement had more public participation than the Non-Cooperation Movement.
  • North-West India: Led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan ('Frontier Gandhi'). His volunteer force was the Khudai Khidmatgar.
  • Farmers: Refused to pay taxes and rent.
  • Women: Participated in salt making and picketing shops selling foreign goods.
  • Rani Gaidinliu: A brave female freedom fighter from North-East India. Nehru had visited her.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Persuaded Gandhi to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference.
• Round Table Conferences: Conferences held in London to discuss the transfer of power. The Congress boycotted the first and third.

Armed Revolution

• Revolutionaries: The success of the Russian Revolution and the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement led them to the path of armed struggle.
• Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) (1924): Attempted to rob money from a train at Kakori (Kakori conspiracy, 1925).
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) (1928): Led by Bhagat Singh.
  • Shot and killed Saunders, the police officer responsible for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.
  • Threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly Hall.
  • Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were hanged on March 23, 1931.
• Chittagong Armoury Raid: Led by Surya Sen.
• Female Revolutionaries: Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutt, Bina Das.

Socialist, Peasant, and Worker Movements

• Congress Socialist Party (CSP): A party formed within the Congress by those interested in socialist ideas, influenced by the Russian Revolution. Jayaprakash Narayan was the first secretary.
  • Aimed to establish a socialist society by opposing capitalism and feudalism.
  • Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay was active in the CSP.
• Peasant Movements: The main issues were excessive taxes, exploitation by landlords, and eviction.
  • Kisan Sabhas were formed.
  • Eka Movement: In Awadh, Uttar Pradesh.
  • All India Kisan Sabha: Formed in 1936.
  • Tebhaga Movement: (1946-47, Bengal) Demanded two-thirds of the harvest for the peasants.
• Workers: Low wages, excessive working hours, exploitation.
  • All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC): The first workers' organization formed at the national level.
  • Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (February 1946): Sailors revolted against British rule on the ship 'Talwar'.

Quit India Movement and INA

• Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942): The last mass movement led by Gandhi, launched after the failure of the Cripps Mission, which came to seek India's support in World War II.
  • Gandhi's mantra: 'Do or Die'.
  • Even though the main leaders were in jail, students, youth, and women carried the movement forward.
  • Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Sucheta Kripalani led from underground. The Congress Radio operated secretly.
  • Gandhi did not condemn the violence. He observed a 21-day fast.
  • Parallel Governments: Ballia (Chittu Pandey), Satara (Nana Patil), Tamluk.
• Indian National Army (INA):
  • Formed under the leadership of Captain Mohan Singh. Later, Subhas Chandra Bose took over the leadership.
  • Bose broadcasted through 'Azad Hind Radio': 'Delhi Chalo'.
  • Women's unit: Rani of Jhansi Regiment (Captain Lakshmi Sahgal).
  • Vaikom Abdul Khader was a Malayali in the INA.
  • Congress leaders, including Nehru, appeared at the Red Fort trial of INA soldiers (Colonel Prem Sahgal, Colonel G. S. Dhillon, Shah Nawaz Khan). The slogan was: "Not traitors, but patriots".

Towards Independence

• Cabinet Mission (March 1946): Three British cabinet members (Stafford Cripps, Pethick Lawrence, A. V. Alexander) arrived in India to discuss the transfer of power.
  • Proposals: Form an interim government, form a Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution.
• Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): A proposal put forward by the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten. To grant independence by partitioning India and Pakistan.
• Indian Independence: India gained independence on August 15, 1947, under the Indian Independence Act. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of independent India.
• Values of the Freedom Struggle: Non-violence, democracy, national unity, secularism, social justice.

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Chapter 6: Learning Aids

SCERT Based Questions and Answers (Q&A)
Learning Activities & Discussion Points

1. Discuss the changes brought about by Mahatma Gandhi's leadership in the Non-Cooperation Movement.
   • Answer: The freedom struggle became a mass movement. It brought together all sections of society like farmers, workers, women, and students. It gave a foundation of non-violence (Satyagraha) to the struggle.
2. The agitation against the Rowlatt Act was a turning point in the freedom struggle. Evaluate.
   • Answer: The anti-Rowlatt agitation was a nationwide hartal. However, it was mainly confined to cities. Following this, Gandhi took up the Khilafat issue and the Non-Cooperation Movement to expand the movement to the villages. It opened the way for Hindu-Muslim unity.
3. The main ideas of the Non-Cooperation Movement were boycott and constructive programs. Discuss.
   • Answer: Boycott: Abandoning British jobs, schools, courts, foreign goods, and legislative assemblies. Constructive Programmes: Strengthening social harmony, promoting the use of Khadi, establishing national schools.
4. How was the Quit India Movement different from previous movements?
   • Answer: Quit India was a movement that continued even after Gandhi and the main leaders were jailed. This movement targeted post offices, telegraph offices, and railway stations. Parallel governments were established in many places. Gandhi did not condemn the violence despite its occurrence.
5. Why was the Lahore Congress a milestone in India's freedom struggle?
   • Answer: It demanded Complete Independence (Purna Swaraj) for the first time. It tasked Gandhi with starting a mass movement to achieve this goal. The tricolor flag was formally adopted.

Most Important Questions (MIQs)

1. Clarify the influence of the Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda movements on Gandhi's political life.
2. Analyze the methods of the Non-Cooperation Movement and its influence on various sections of Indian society.
3. What was the objective of the formation of the Swaraj Party? How did it differ from the policies of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
4. What is the significance of Gandhi's decision to break the salt law in the Civil Disobedience Movement?
5. What were the circumstances that prompted the revolutionaries to choose armed struggle?
6. What was the importance of the Quit India Movement?

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Chapter 7: The Glimpses of Free India

Partition and Hardships

• India's first Independence Day was filled not only with joy but also with the sorrow of partition.
• Partition of India: India was divided into two independent countries, India and Pakistan.
• Radcliffe Line: The jurist Cyril Radcliffe drew the boundary line between India and Pakistan.
• Partition: Only the provinces of Bengal and Punjab were partitioned. East Bengal became East Pakistan, and West Punjab became West Pakistan.
• Sylhet: Sylhet in Assam became part of East Pakistan through a referendum.
• Migration: Millions of Hindus and Sikhs fled from West Pakistan to India. Muslims from India also migrated to Pakistan.
• Major problems caused by the partition:
  • Influx of millions of refugees.
  • Widespread violence, massacres (Calcutta, Delhi, Lahore).
  • Atrocities against women.
• Martyrdom of Gandhi: On January 30, 1948, Gandhi was shot and killed by a communalist, Nathuram Vinayak Godse, at Birla House in Delhi.

Challenges Faced by Independent India and Constitutional Steps
Major challenges faced by independent India:

1. Rehabilitate refugees.
2. Integration of princely states.
3. Incorporate Portuguese and French territories.
4. Reorganize states on a linguistic basis.
5. Strengthen the Indian economy.
6. Formulate an independent foreign policy.

• Refugee Rehabilitation: By 1951, the refugee problem from West Pakistan was fully resolved. The influx from East Pakistan continued until the formation of Bangladesh in 1971.
• Steps of the Constitution:
  • The Constituent Assembly began its work on December 13, 1946.
  • The Objective Resolution, presented by Jawaharlal Nehru, was adopted on January 22, 1947.
  • The new constitution was adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into force on January 26, 1950.
• Integration of Princely States:
  • Under the Indian Independence Act, 565 princely states were free to join either India or Pakistan.
  • The integration of the princely states was led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and the Secretary of the States Department, V. P. Menon.
  • The "Instrument of Accession" was the agreement for joining the Indian Union (which retained the right to internal autonomy).
  • The princely states of Junagadh, Kashmir, Travancore, and Hyderabad refused to join the Indian Union. They were integrated through reconciliation talks and military action.
  • Privy Purse: Financial assistance given by the government to the rulers of the princely states who agreed to the integration. It was abolished in 1971 during the time of Indira Gandhi (26th Constitutional Amendment).
• Liberation of French-Portuguese Territories:
  • French territories (Puducherry, Mahe, Yanam, Karaikal, Chandranagar) were handed over in 1954.
  • Portuguese territories (Goa, Daman, Diu).
  • A popular uprising succeeded in Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954.
  • In 1961, Goa, Daman, and Diu were merged into the Indian Union through military action.
• Linguistic Reorganisation of States:
  • The Nagpur Congress session of 1920 decided to organize Congress committees on a linguistic basis.
  • S. K. Dhar Commission (1948): Appointed to study the reorganization of states.
  • JVP Committee (1948): Members were Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
  • Potti Sriramulu died in 1952 after a hunger strike demanding a state of Andhra for Telugu speakers. Due to the ensuing agitation, the state of Andhra came into existence on October 1, 1953.
  • State Reorganisation Commission (1953): Led by Justice Fazl Ali (members: K. M. Panikkar, H. N. Kunzru).
  • Under the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, 14 linguistic states and 6 union territories were formed on November 1, 1956.

Economic Strengthening

• Independent India followed a Mixed Economy, giving importance to the public sector.
• Planning Commission: Formed on March 15, 1950, under the chairmanship of Nehru, on the model of the Soviet Union. NITI Aayog came into existence in 2015.
• First Five-Year Plan: Emphasized agricultural development. Dams were built (Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley, Hirakud).
• Second Five-Year Plan: Emphasized industrial development.
• Iron and Steel Industries (Countries that provided assistance):
  • Rourkela (Odisha) - Germany.
  • Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) - Soviet Union.
  • Durgapur (West Bengal) - United Kingdom.
  • Bokaro (Jharkhand) - Soviet Union.
• Land Reforms: A limit was set on the amount of land a person could own. Surplus land was identified and distributed to the landless.
• Bhoodan Movement: An attempt to implement land reforms without legislation, led by Vinoba Bhave. He persuaded landowners to donate land.
• Green Revolution: Changes implemented from 1960 to achieve self-sufficiency in food production.
  • Father: Dr. M. S. Swaminathan.
  • Used high-yielding seeds, chemical fertilizers, and modern machinery.
• White Revolution: To increase milk production. Led by Dr. Verghese Kurien (Amul - Anand Milk Union Limited).
• Nationalisation of Banks: As banks were giving priority only to the rich, 14 major banks were taken over in 1969 under the leadership of Indira Gandhi to make services available to the common man.
• Economic Reforms: In the 1990s, emphasis was given to Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG).

Education, Science, Technology, and Space Research

• Major Education Commissions:
  • Dr. Radhakrishnan Commission (1948): University education.
  • Dr. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar Commission (1952): Secondary education.
  • Dr. D. S. Kothari Commission (1964): National Pattern of Education.
  • National Education Policy (NEP) (2020): From pre-primary to higher secondary.
• Science and Technology: Under Nehru's encouragement, the services of scientific advisors like Homi J. Bhabha and Meghnad Saha were used.
• Major Institutions: IIT, NIV, BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre), AIIMS, DRDO, IIM.
  • India's first nuclear test: 'Smiling Buddha' (1974, Pokhran).
• Space Research:
  • Fathers of space research: Homi J. Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai.
  • Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO): Established in 1969 with headquarters in Bangalore.
  • Major Centers: Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota), Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (Thiruvananthapuram).
  • Major Achievements: Aryabhata (India's first artificial satellite, April 19, 1975), Chandrayaan I, II, III, Mangalyaan (2013), Aditya L1.
  • Missile Man of India: Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.

India's Foreign Policy

• Architect of foreign policy: Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Basic Principles:
  • Peaceful Coexistence.
  • Stance against colonialism and apartheid.
  • Protect national security and sovereignty.
  • Non-Aligned Policy.
  • Panchsheel Principles.
• Panchsheel Principles: Signed in 1954 by Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai.
  • Principles: Mutual respect, non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality, peaceful coexistence.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Formed under India's leadership to remain independent without joining the blocs of the USA and the USSR after World War II.

Kerala Development Model

• Formation of Kerala State: Formed on November 1, 1956, by integrating Travancore, Cochin, Malabar, and Kasaragod taluk of South Canara.
• First Government: A government was formed in 1957 with E. M. S. Namboodiripad as Chief Minister.
• Land Reforms in Kerala:
  • The Agrarian Relations Bill was introduced in 1957.
  • Tenants got permanent rights to land through the Kerala Land Reforms (Amendment) Act, which came into force on January 1, 1970.
  • Results: Abolished the landlord system, set a limit on land ownership, and reduced exploitation and inequality in the agricultural sector.
• Educational Achievements: The Land Reforms Act, the Kerala Education Act (1958), and social reform movements helped to make education universal.
  • Literacy Movement: On April 18, 1991, Kerala became the first fully literate state in India.
  • Panchayati Raj Act (1994): Gave more power to local self-government institutions in the education sector.
• Health Sector: Low infant mortality rate, low maternal mortality rate, high life expectancy.
• Other Achievements: High rank in the Human Development Index (HDI), Universal Public Distribution System (1965), women empowerment through Kudumbashree.

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Chapter 7: Learning Aids

SCERT Based Questions and Answers (Q&A)
Learning Activities & Discussion Points

1. The integration of princely states into the Indian Union.
   • Answer: The princely states were merged under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V. P. Menon. They joined the Indian Union through the 'Instrument of Accession'. States like Junagadh, Kashmir, and Hyderabad were integrated through military action and reconciliation talks.
2. The merits and demerits of economic reforms in post-independence India.
   • Answer (Main Merits): Focused on agriculture and industry through Five-Year Plans. Ensured food self-sufficiency through Green and White Revolutions. Nationalisation of banks helped common people to get loans and services.
   • Main Demerits: The LPG policies of the 1990s led to the privatization of public sector undertakings.
3. Achievements in the fields of land reforms, education, and public health in Kerala.
   • Answer: Land Reforms: Abolished the landlord system, gave tenants permanent rights to land. Education: Universal and free education, complete literacy (1991). Health: Low infant and maternal mortality rates, high life expectancy. This placed Kerala at a high position in the Human Development Index.

Most Important Questions (MIQs)

1. What kind of problems did the refugee influx after the partition of India create?
2. Who were the leaders who led the integration of princely states into the Indian Union? What was the main agreement adopted for this?
3. What was Potti Sriramulu's role in the formation of states on a linguistic basis? Explain about the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC).
4. What were the main policies adopted by Nehru for economic progress in independent India?
5. Compare the objectives of the Green Revolution and the White Revolution.
6. Describe the basic principles of India's foreign policy.
7. Clarify the influence of the Land Reforms Act in the Kerala Development Model.