STD9 : SCERT Questions and Answers

 

SOCIAL SCIENCE I

Chapter 1: Moving Forward from the Stone Age

• Objective: To understand the basic characteristics of human life from the Stone Age to the Metal Age, highlighting human progress and the formation of early social structures.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Stone Age: A period where humans primarily used stone tools.

        ▪ Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age):

            • Tools: Characterised by rough (unpolished) stone tools. Towards the end, tools made of bones were also used. Tools evolved from mere utilisation of available stones to fashioning and standardisation for specific purposes.

            • Life: Primitive humans lived in caves and open spaces. Their main means of livelihood were hunting and gathering. They lived a nomadic life and food was not stored.

            • Society: Basic units of society were bands (small groups of fewer than a hundred members bound by blood relation). Men were engaged in hunting, and women in gathering.

            • Art & Communication: Artistic creations like cave paintings and sculptures were employed during the late Palaeolithic period, showing intellectual and technical skill. Colours were made from plants, bark, fruits, and red stone powder.

        ▪ Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age):

            • Transition: This was a transitional stage from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic Age.

            • Tools: Marked by the use of microliths (very small tools), smaller than Palaeolithic tools.

            • Life: Indications of domestication of animals emerge. Hunting and gathering remained key means of livelihood.

            • Communication: Development of human communication is mainly seen during this age in India. Works of art in cave centres like Bhimbetka, Lakhajoar, and Kathotia in Madhya Pradesh provide insights into life during this period.

        ▪ Neolithic Age (New Stone Age):

            • Radical Change: Gordon Childe's Man Makes Himself highlights two important changes in this period that transformed human life.

            • Agriculture & Domestication: Humans began agriculture and domestication of animals, ensuring steady availability of food.

            • Tools: Use of polished tools which helped in cultivating land, tilling soil, and cutting trees.

            • Settlements: Led to permanent settlements and agrarian villages.

            • Development: Introduction of pottery and use of clay bricks enabled grain storage. Surplus production allowed specialisation, with some engaging in other occupations like pottery and weaving, leading to new social formations. This era laid the foundation for human progress.

            • Geographical Significance: The 'Fertile Crescent' region saw the beginning of agriculture.

    ◦ Metal Age: Followed the Stone Age as humans began using metals for tools and weapons.

        ▪ Copper & Bronze Age (Chalcolithic Age):

            • Chalcolithic: Period when copper tools were used along with stone tools.

            • Bronze: Copper was the first metal used, then bronze (alloy of copper and tin) became prominent due to its strength and durability.

            • Urbanisation: The Bronze Age saw the beginning of urban life. Cities, public buildings, drainage systems, and various crafts characterised this period.

            • Harappan Civilisation: An example of a Bronze Age urban civilisation in India, with cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Lothal.

        ▪ Iron Age (Vedic Age):

            • Arrival of Aryans: After the decline of the Harappan civilisation, Aryans (believed to be from Central Asia, speaking Indo-European languages) entered the Sapta Sindhu region.

            • Vedas: Information about this age comes from the Vedas, hence it's called the Vedic Age (1500 BCE - 600 BCE).

            • Early Vedic Period:

                ◦ Economy: Pastoral economy.

                ◦ Life: Semi-nomadic life in the Sapta Sindhu region.

                ◦ Society: Women had a comparatively higher social status. Rituals were simple and performed by the head of the family. Natural forces were worshipped.

            • Later Vedic Period:

                ◦ Expansion: Extended up to the Gangetic plain, with agriculture gaining importance.

                ◦ Life: Transition to a settled life.

                ◦ Society: The social status of women declined. Use of iron became common. The Varna system became stronger and more complicated. Rituals became complex and expensive, privileges of a particular section emerged, and new deities were worshipped. Various crafts began.

    ◦ Varna System: A social stratification system with four varnas: Brahmins (priestly rites), Kshatriyas (governance, protection), Vaishyas (agriculture, trade), and Sudras (served the other three).

Chapter 2: Ideas and Early States

• Objective: To discuss the significant changes in ideas and political systems that emerged in India during the 6th century BCE, particularly focusing on the rise of new ideologies and early states.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Ideological Revolution (6th Century BCE):

        ▪ Context: A remarkable period globally, with new ideas spread by figures like Vardhamana Mahavira, Gautama Buddha (India), Zarathushtra (Iran), Confucius (China), and Heraclitus (Greece).

        ▪ Causes: Emerged primarily in the Ganga Basin due to changing material conditions.

            • Widespread use of iron tools: Led to increased agricultural production.

            • Growth of trade and cities: Resulted from agricultural surplus.

            • Conflict with Vedic Practices: The emerging socio-economic system, based on agriculture and cattle, was not in harmony with Vedic practices that prioritised rituals and cattle sacrifice, which adversely affected agriculture and forced people to think against these rituals.

            • Rise of New Classes: Vaishyas (with material progress from trade) desired higher social status, and rich Gahapathis (engaged in trade, owned land) gained status outside the Varna system. These groups supported the new ideological concepts like Jainism and Buddhism.

    ◦ Jainism:

        ▪ Founder: Propagated by Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th (and last) Tirthankara. He added his principles to those of Parswanatha (23rd Tirthankara). Born in Kundagrama near Vaishali, Bihar. Attained Nirvana at Pava.

        ▪ Doctrines:

            • Denial of Vedas.

            • Triratnas (Three Jewels): Right Belief, Right Knowledge, and Right Action for attaining 'Moksha' (salvation).

            • Non-violence (Ahimsa): Emphasised that everything has life and to not harm any living being. This principle significantly influenced Indian society.

            • Karma: Birth and rebirth are determined by Karma.

            • Monastic Discipline: Monks and nuns were advised to not lie, not own property, and practice celibacy.

        ▪ Sects: Later split into Swetambaras and Digambaras.

    ◦ Buddhism:

        ▪ Founder: Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha), born in Lumbini, Nepal. Attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Gave first sermon at Sarnath. Attained Nirvana at Kushinara.

        ▪ Principles:

            • Four Noble Truths: Life is full of sorrows; Desire is the cause of sorrow; If desire is destroyed, sorrow will disappear; To achieve this, the Eight Fold Path should be followed.

            • Eight Fold Path (Ashtangamarga): Right vision, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, awareness, meditation. Also known as the Middle Path, rejecting severe asceticism and luxurious living.

            • Ahimsa: Suitable for the new agricultural conditions in the Ganga basin as cattle were needed for farming and transportation.

            • Equality: Opposed the Varna system and caste system.

            • Language: Spread ideas in Pali, the language of common people.

        ▪ Sanghas: Monastic orders formed to propagate Buddhism, open to all regardless of caste and gender (Bhikshus for men, Bhikshunis for women). Decisions were made through discussions and majority opinion. Helped inculcate democracy and values in society.

        ▪ Stupas: Semi-circular buildings built on sites where Buddha's remains or objects were buried (e.g., Sanchi, Sarnath).

        ▪ Impact: Spread to Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Burma, Myanmar, Tibet, Afghanistan, and Southeast Asia. Later split into Mahayana (worshipped Buddha as God) and Hinayana.

    ◦ Materialism:

        ▪ Promulgator: Ajita Kesakambalin, a contemporary of Buddha.

        ▪ Ideas: Opined that all religious practices are meaningless, and there is neither Ihaloka (this world) nor Paraloka (other world). Believed everything is made of four elements that dissolve upon death.

    ◦ Early States: Janapadas and Mahajanapadas:

        ▪ Janapadas: 'Janapada' means a place where people settled. Formed as tribal communities ('Jana') settled permanently due to widespread agriculture.

        ▪ Growth: Agricultural surplus led to growth of trade and towns. Towns became manufacturing centers. Regulations became necessary for diverse economic activities, leading to the disappearance of tribal governance.

        ▪ State Formation: The close link with agriculture and land gave rise to the idea of 'one's own land', making state formation a reality.

        ▪ Mahajanapadas: Buddhist work Anguttaranikaya mentions 16 political entities that formed this way. Historians refer to these changes as 'second urbanisation'.

        ▪ Administrative System: Kingship and a standing army developed. Taxes included 'Bali' and 'Bhaga' (grains, cattle, forest produce). Artisans also paid taxes. Kings were assisted by Senani, Purohita, and Gramani. Mahajanapadas had forts and capital cities.

    ◦ The Rise of Magadha:

        ▪ Dominance: One of the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged as the ultimate winner due to constant wars for dominance.

        ▪ Causes of Growth:

            • Geographical Advantages: Fertile region with good rainfall. Large deposits of iron ore (for tools and weapons). Abundance of elephants in forests (important in warfare).

            • Transportation: Ganga and its tributaries provided easy transportation of goods.

            • Strong Rulers: Ruled by powerful kings like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru (Haryanka Dynasty).

    ◦ From Magadha to the Maurya Kingdom:

        ▪ Foundation: Chandragupta Maurya defeated Dhanananda (last Nanda ruler) in 321 BCE and founded the Maurya Kingdom.

        ▪ Sources: History of Maurya kingdom known from Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Emperor Asoka’s inscriptions, and contemporary coins. Megasthenes' description of Pataliputra (capital).

        ▪ Arthashastra & Saptanga Theory: Kautilya's Arthashastra details the seven components (Saptangas) on which a kingdom rests.

        ▪ King Asoka: The most important Maurya ruler. After conquering Kalinga, he gave up war.

        ▪ Asoka Dhamma (Dharma): Ideas propagated by Asoka for peace and coexistence. Main ideas: tolerance to other religions, respect for elders and teachers, kindness to slaves and the sick. Romila Thapar suggests it was a mechanism for unity in a vast, diverse country.

        ▪ Mauryan Administration: Vast kingdom divided into provinces with governors. Pataliputra under direct Emperor control. Military administration by a 30-member committee (cavalry, chariots, elephants, navy). Asokan inscriptions (Brahmi, Kharoshti, Aramaic scripts) are key sources, referring to the king as 'Devanampiya'.

    ◦ Growth of Trade:

        ▪ Coins: Punch Marked Coins (silver and copper) indicate use of currency for trade.

        ▪ Commodities: Grains, textiles, metals were chief items.

        ▪ Traders: Setthis and Satthavahakar.

        ▪ Transportation: Goods transported by land, sea, and rivers.

    ◦ State Formation in Greece:

        ▪ City-States: Villages united for security/governance formed city-states (city + surrounding agricultural villages). Hills/mountains provided natural boundaries. Examples: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes.

        ▪ Athenian Democracy: Resembled modern democracy 2500 years ago. All males over 30 (except slaves) were citizens and took decisions. Women, artisans, foreigners were not citizens.

        ▪ Prosperity: Athens was a prosperous trade center in the Mediterranean. Skilled in shipbuilding and seafaring. Attracted thinkers like Sophists and Herodotus (father of history).

• Cause & Effect: The emergence of new material conditions (iron use, agriculture, trade) in the Ganga basin caused the ideological revolution (Jainism, Buddhism), which in turn effected changes in social structure and the rise of states. Geographical features (fertility, resources, transport) caused Magadha's dominance, leading to the vast Maurya kingdom.

Chapter 3: Land Grants and the Indian Society

• Objective: To unveil the history of the formation of the feudal system in India through the process of land grants and its far-reaching consequences on Indian society, economy, and culture.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Land Grants: The practice of transferring land from kings to individuals or institutions, often Brahmins, along with special rights.

    ◦ Origin & Spread: Mentioned in Buddhist works, but became widespread during the post-Mauryan period. The Satavahanas (Deccan region) started this practice, and it became widespread under the Guptas.

    ◦ Evolution of Land Grants:

        ▪ Satavahanas: Initially, only right to resources of the land was given.

        ▪ Guptas: Grants became more extensive. Along with resources, rights over the people living there were transferred. The right to collect taxes and administer justice was also transferred. Recipients gained the right to re-grant the land. Land grants also served as remuneration for services instead of cash.

    ◦ Indian Feudalism:

        ▪ Formation: Widespread land grants led to the emergence of a powerful landlord section in society, particularly Brahmins who received most grants.

        ▪ Dependence: Those who worked on the land (farmers, agricultural labourers, slaves) became rightless dependents of landlords. They were bound to the land, lived and died on it, and laboured for their masters.

        ▪ Exploitation: In addition to taxes, lower strata had to provide free services to the upper stratum. This system is termed 'Indian Feudalism'.

• Economic Changes & Agriculture:

    ◦ Agricultural Improvement: Despite feudalism, there was a remarkable improvement in agriculture.

    ◦ Expansion: Even uncultivated areas were made suitable. Brahmins' knowledge of agricultural technology and climate helped expansion.

    ◦ Irrigation Facilities (Gupta Period): Canals, water raised from wells, rainwater collection, dams (Skandagupta rebuilt Sudarsana Lake), and Ghatiyantra (Araghata) (a wheel with pots for lifting water).

• Crafts and Trade:

    ◦ Growth: Expansion of agriculture led to the growth of non-agricultural activities.

    ◦ Crafts: Evidenced by artefacts like gold/silver/precious stone jewellery, glassware, silk/cotton textiles, and ivory sculptures.

    ◦ Guilds (Srenis): Craftsmen and traders formed associations called 'Guilds' or 'Srenis' to collect raw materials, control production, and market goods.

    ◦ Trade Items: Skilled craftsmen's products, especially various types of textiles (muslin, calico, linen), were chief trade items.

    ◦ Trade Routes: New routes developed. External trade links with West Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and Rome.

    ◦ Traders: Wealthy merchants known as 'Nagarasreshtin' and 'Sarthvaha'.

    ◦ Trade Centres: Kanauj, Shravasti, Kausambi, Ujjayini, Mathura.

• Decline of Trade and Urban Decay:

    ◦ Causes: Decline of foreign trade (e.g., collapse of Roman Empire by 6th CE) and learning of silk-making technique by Westerners from Chinese.

    ◦ Effects: Adversely affected internal trade and movement of craftsmen. Led to slump in arts/crafts, ruralisation, and decay of major towns. Many formerly large cities (e.g., Kausambi, Takshasila) were described as villages by 7th-century traveller Hiuen Tsang.

• Social Life:

    ◦ Caste System Complexity: Entry of new occupational groups, peoples from outside the subcontinent, forest dwellers (Nishadas), and children from inter-caste marriages led to the formation of numerous new 'jatis' or 'upajatis', making the caste system more complex.

    ◦ Varna Status: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas retained their privileges. Sudras were described as peasants.

    ◦ Untouchability: 'Antyajas' were outside the Chaturvarnya system and considered 'untouchables' (e.g., Chandalas, Charmakarar). Fa Hien describes Chandalas as having to make sounds to warn higher castes of their approach.

    ◦ Position of Women: Generally low status. Expected to be submissive. Even upper-class women did not enjoy high consideration. No evidence of land grants received by Brahmin women.

    ◦ Marriages: Anuloma (upper caste groom, lower caste bride) and Pratiloma (upper caste bride, lower caste groom) marriages existed.

• Administration (Gupta Period):

    ◦ King's Powers: Kings had extensive powers and were considered equal to God (e.g., Samudragupta in Prayaga Prasati). Responsibilities included protecting subjects, the weak, and administering justice.

    ◦ Samantha System: Gupta kings allowed conquered rulers to continue as 'Samanthas' with autonomy in their areas. Guptas did not interfere in their administration or succession.

    ◦ Village Administration: Directly ruled areas had an elaborate administrative system. Village head: 'Gramapati' or 'Gramadhyaksha'. Disputes settled by 'Gramavriddhar' (elders). Communities of carpenters, weavers, herdsmen were represented.

• Art and Literature (Gupta Period):

    ◦ Architecture: Construction of temples using stone and bricks, with notable sculptures. Examples: Dasavatara Temple, Vishnu Temple of Tigawa.

    ◦ Prasastis: Stone inscriptions proclaiming a ruler's achievements and praise. Examples: Prayaga Prasati by Harishena for Samudragupta's conquests.

    ◦ Sanskrit Literature: Received royal patronage; Sanskrit was the language of administration. Great epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and most Puranas took their present textual form during this period.

    ◦ Dramas, Poems, Grammar, Lexicon: Notable works include Abhijnana Sakunthala (Kalidasa), Mriccha Katika (Sudraka), Thrikandi (Bhartrhari), Amarakosam (Amarasimha).

    ◦ Paintings: World-famous paintings in Ajanta Caves depict royal life, court, celestial beings, and epic scenes, using natural colours.

    ◦ Philosophical Thought: Various schools of thought formulated through debates.

        ▪ Samkhya (Kapila), Yoga (not explicitly named exponent, but generally Patanjali), Nyaya (Gauthama), Vaisheshika (Kanada), Vedanta (Badarayana), Mimamsa (Jaimini).

    ◦ Metallurgy: Advanced skills evident in the Iron Pillar at Mehrauli (4th CE), which shows no sign of rusting after centuries.

    ◦ Science: Books on astronomy, mathematics, and medical science. Notable works: Brihatsamhita (Varahamihira), Aryabhatiya (Arya Bhata), Amarakosa (Amarasimha).

• South India (Post-Gupta Period):

    ◦ Land Grants Spread: Practice spread by 6th CE due to Brahmin migration. Dynasties like Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas granted lands to Brahmins and temples.

    ◦ Economic Impact: Brahmins gained high status. Land grants led to agricultural development (Brahmins' knowledge of tech/climate, kings/local bodies built reservoirs/irrigation). Surplus agriculture led to growth of internal trade.

    ◦ Trade: Busy ports like Mahabalipuram, Korkai, Kaveripattinam, Muziris, Tondi facilitated trade with Chinese and Arab merchants. Merchant guilds known as 'Vanika' communities.

    ◦ Social & Cultural Life:

        ▪ Brahmins were wealthy and dominant. Low castes suffered.

        ▪ Village courts settled disputes through collective opinion; kings did not interfere in customs, worship, or caste rules.

        ▪ Rise of the Bhakti movement.

        ▪ Art & Architecture: Temples were chief works of art. Dravidian style of temple construction evolved through three phases: Rock-cut, Monolithic chariot, and Structural temples. Features included Sreekovil (Garbhagriha), Vimana, Sikhara, and gigantic Gopuras. Examples: Kanchipuram, Mahabalipuram (Shore Temple, Ratha Temples), Madurai (Meenakshi Temple), Srirangam.

Chapter 4: Distribution of Power in Indian Constitution

• Objective: To understand the framework of democratic governance and welfare state building in independent India, specifically focusing on the distribution and separation of powers as enshrined in the Indian Constitution.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Post-Independence Context: India's independence in 1947 brought the responsibility of establishing a democratic government and welfare system to address historical issues like discrimination, social evils, and human rights violations under British rule.

    ◦ Objective Resolution (December 13, 1946): Presented by Jawaharlal Nehru to the Constituent Assembly.

        ▪ Core Ideals: India as an independent sovereign republic, a union of autonomous territories (former British India, Indian states, others willing to join). All power to emanate from the people. Ensured social, economic, and political justice; equality of status, opportunity, and before the law; and fundamental freedoms (speech, expression, belief, worship, profession, association, assembly).

    ◦ Indian Constitution:

        ▪ Drafting: Prepared by the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly (formed Dec 6, 1946). Took 2 years, 11 months, 17 days.

        ▪ Adoption & Enforcement: Adopted on Nov 26, 1949 (395 articles, 8 schedules, 22 parts). Came into force on Jan 26, 1950. A "living document" that incorporates changes over time.

        ▪ Features:

            • Largest Written Constitution: Comprehensive and extensive.

            • Parliamentary Democracy: Executive members drawn from and controlled by the legislature.

            • Sovereignty to People.

            • Rigid and Flexible Structure: Provisions can be amended through special procedures (rigid) or ordinary legislative manners (flexible).

            • Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties.

            • Directive Principles of State Policy: Directions for socio-economic development.

            • Bicameral Legislature: Lower House (Lok Sabha) representing people, Upper House (Rajya Sabha) representing states for deliberation.

            • Federalism with a Strong Central Government: Division of powers between Centre and States, but Centre retains special upper hand.

            • Independent and Impartial Judiciary.

            • Independent Constitutional Institutions: To broaden democratic system.

    ◦ Indian Federalism:

        ▪ Definition: Power divided between two levels of government (Centre and States) based on the Constitution.

        ▪ Rationale for Adoption: To strengthen democracy through power sharing, maintain diversity and unity, effectively counter separatist tendencies by ensuring regional representation, and achieve economic progress and welfare.

        ▪ Features: Written and Rigid Constitution, Division of Powers, Independent Judiciary. India is a "Union of States" (Article I) but not explicitly called federal. Quasi-federal system. Common Constitution for Centre/States, single citizenship. Centre has upper hand in amending Constitution and over key subjects. Bicameral legislature.

        ▪ Division of Powers (Seventh Schedule):

            • Union List: Exclusive law-making powers for the Union Government (e.g., Foreign Affairs, Defence, Railways, Banking, Citizenship). (Initially 97 subjects).

            • State List: Legislative powers for State governments in normal circumstances (e.g., Agriculture, Jails, Police, Local Government). (Initially 66 subjects).

            • Concurrent List: Both Central and State Governments have legislative powers (e.g., Education, Forestry, Trade Unions, Marriage, Birth and Death Registration). (Initially 47 subjects).

            • Residuary Powers: Subjects not in any list, vested in the Central Government (e.g., Cyber Laws).

    ◦ Separation of Powers:

        ▪ Purpose: To prevent concentration of power and safeguard democracy from dictatorship. Ensures checks and balances among the three branches.

        ▪ Branches of Government:

            • Legislature (Parliament):

                ◦ Role: Primary responsibility is to make laws. Responds to public opinion and aspirations.

                ◦ Structure: Bicameral (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) to represent diversity.

                ◦ Lok Sabha (Lower House): Directly elected by people (members >25 years). Term 5 years. Maximum strength 550 (current 543). Government formation depends on its majority. Chaired by the Speaker. Has more powers than Rajya Sabha; Money Bills originate here.

                ◦ Rajya Sabha (Upper House): Members elected by State Legislative Assemblies (members >30 years). A permanent house, 1/3 members retire every two years, term 6 years. Chaired by the Vice President. Maximum strength 250 (238 elected, 12 nominated). Proceedings to remove Vice President begin here. Can mandate Parliament to create new All India Services.

                ◦ Legislative Process: Bill (Government Bill, Private Member Bill, Money Bill, Non-Money Bill) passes through First Reading, Second Reading, Third Reading in both houses, then needs Presidential assent to become law.

            • Executive:

                ◦ Role: Responsible for implementing and administering laws and policies.

                ◦ Components: President, Vice President, and the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister.

                ◦ Types: Nominal Executive (President) and Real Executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers). Permanent Executive (Bureaucracy) handles day-to-day operations and assists the political executive.

                ◦ President: Executive head of the State. Elected by an Electoral College (elected members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies) for a 5-year term. Powers include summoning Parliament, dissolving Lok Sabha, appointing PM/Ministers/Judges/Governors, declaring emergency, Commander-in-Chief. Acts in accordance with Council of Ministers' advice, but has discretionary powers too.

                ◦ Prime Minister: Administrative head and leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha. Forms and manages the Council of Ministers. Links President, Cabinet, and Parliament.

                ◦ Council of Ministers: Headed by PM, assists the President. Functions: formulate national/foreign policies, steer legislative process, administer country, draft bills, coordinate departments.

            • Judiciary:

                ◦ Role: Ensures legislative and executive functions are in accordance with the Constitution. Protects citizens' rights and constitutional values, thus known as the "Protector of the Constitution".

                ◦ Structure: Single integrated system led by the Supreme Court.

                ◦ Supreme Court: Established Jan 28, 1950, in New Delhi. Judges retire at 65. Parliament can remove judges. Chief Justice and judges take oath/submit resignation to the President. Supreme interpreter of the Constitution and guardian of fundamental rights.

                ◦ Powers of SC:

                    ▪ Original Jurisdiction: Resolves matters exclusively by SC (e.g., Centre-State Disputes).

                    ▪ Appellate Jurisdiction: Highest appellate court, hears appeals against lower court judgments.

                    ▪ Advisory Jurisdiction: Gives legal advice to the President upon request.

                    ▪ Writ Jurisdiction: Issues special orders (writs) to protect fundamental rights.

                    ▪ Judicial Review: Power to examine the constitutionality of any law or executive order, declaring it unconstitutional if inconsistent with the Constitution.

• Limitations: While the Constitution provides for a robust system, the effectiveness depends on various factors including the implementation of its provisions. The "quasi-federal" nature implies a strong centre, which can be seen as a limitation on state autonomy by some perspectives. The process of constitutional amendment can be complex.

• Cause & Effect: The desire to overcome the undemocratic and unjust measures of British rule caused the drafting of a constitution rooted in principles of democracy and welfare. The need to accommodate India's vast diversity and preserve unity caused the adoption of a federal system. The concern for preventing power concentration caused the establishment of separation of powers among government branches.

Chapter 5: Demographic Trends in India

• Objective: To understand population trends and structures in India, and how demographic factors influence socio-economic progress and sustainable development.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Population: The total number of people residing in an area. Rapid growth can lead to problems like poverty, unemployment, and malnutrition. India is the most populous country (142.86 crore in 2023, UNFPA).

    ◦ Demography: The scientific study of population structure, dynamics, and development, including birth and death rates, migration, and population density.

        ▪ Branches: Social Demography (investigates population structure and changes, causes, and consequences, emphasizing socio-economic and political patterns); Formal Demography (measures and analyses factors of population change, e.g., census).

    ◦ Census: Systematic data collection of people, usually conducted once every ten years in India, led by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner.

    ◦ Indicators of Demography:

        ▪ Migration: The permanent or temporary settlement of people from one region to another.

            • Types: International Migration (across country borders, e.g., India to Gulf countries); Internal Migration (within a country's border, e.g., people moving between Indian states).

            • Reasons: Better income, higher social status, employment, education, higher standard of living.

            • Effects: Changes population structure and can lead to socio-economic and cultural shifts.

        ▪ Birth Rate: The number of live births per thousand of the population in a year.

        ▪ Death Rate: The number of deaths per thousand of the population in a year.

        ▪ Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of infants dying within one year out of 1000 live births.

        ▪ Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): Number of women dying during childbirth per thousand births. High IMR and MMR indicate backwardness and poverty.

        ▪ Population Growth: Calculated as the difference between birth and death rates. Growth slows when birth rate is low and death rate is high; increases when birth rate exceeds death rate.

        ▪ Population Density: The total number of people residing per square kilometer. Delhi has the highest, and Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest density (2011 Census).

            • Problems in Densely Populated Areas: Lack of open spaces, pollution, water shortage, crowding.

        ▪ Sex Ratio: The number of females per thousand males in the population.

        ▪ Child Sex Ratio: The number of females per thousand males in the age group 0-6 years.

            • Cause for Decline: Can be due to factors like female foeticide, preferential attitude towards boys, and inadequate healthcare for girls.

            • Social Problems from Decreasing Ratio: Leads to societal imbalances.

            • Solutions: NITI Aayog recommends raising awareness on girls' rights, providing better healthcare and education for girls, and empowering women.

        ▪ Life Expectancy: An estimate of how long a person lives on average, determined by death rates of each age group.

            • Kerala's High Life Expectancy: Attributed to high literacy rate, higher education, decentralised public health policy, cleanliness, food availability, and public distribution. Kerala formulated a 'State Old Age Policy' in 2013 due to increasing elderly population.

        ▪ Age Structure: The proportion of persons in different age groups (Children 0-14, Young 15-59, Elderly Above 60).

            • Factors Affecting: Birth/death rates, healthcare, diseases, life expectancy.

            • Ageing Population: When the ratio of older age groups is higher than younger ones.

            • India's Structure (2011): High proportion of young population, low elderly. This provides a potential workforce for economic growth, requiring emphasis on education and healthcare for youth, and social security for the elderly.

        ▪ Dependency Ratio: Compares the dependent population (below 15 and above 64) to the working population (15-64).

            • High Dependency Ratio: Means a larger burden on the employable population.

            • Low Dependency Ratio (Demographic Gift/Dividend): Occurs when the number of employed people is more than the unemployed among the working age population, leading to economic progress. This is not stable as the employed population ages.

    ◦ National Population Policy 2000: Aims to streamline population by 2045 to strengthen sustainable economic growth, social progress, and environmental protection. India was the first developing country to introduce a government-sponsored family planning programme in 1952.

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SOCIAL SCIENCE II

Chapter 1: On the Roof of the World (The Northern Mountain Region)

• Objective: To understand the unique geographical features and the entwined human life of the Northern Mountain Region, as one of India's physiographic divisions.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Formation of Northern Mountains:

        ▪ Fold Mountains: Relatively young and lofty mountains formed by the folding of rock layers due to compression.

        ▪ Plate Tectonics: Formed due to the convergent boundary interaction of the Indian Plate (which moved northwards) and the Eurasian Plate, causing the upliftment of the Tethys seabed. This process is ongoing, so the Himalayas are still growing.

    ◦ Extent: Extends nearly 2400 km from the River Indus (west) to the River Brahmaputra (east), with a width of 150 to 400 km. Includes high peaks, glaciers, and valleys. Originate from the Pamir Knot ('the Roof of the World').

    ◦ Classification based on Topography:

        ▪ Trans Himalayas (Tibetan Himalayas): Northernmost division, average elevation 3000m. Includes the Karakoram range, which connects to the Pamir Knot.

        ▪ The Himalayas: Three parallel ranges:

            • Himadri (Greater Himalayas / Inner Himalayas): Highest range, average elevation 6100m, snow-clad, contains most of the world's highest peaks.

            • Himachal (Lesser Himalayas): Middle range, average elevation 3500-4500m.

            • Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas): Southernmost, borders the Ganga Plains.

        ▪ Eastern Hills (Purvachal Hills): Hills of lesser elevation (500-3000m) running north-south from Arunachal Pradesh to Mizoram. Important hills include Patkaibum, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills, and Manipur Hills. This region, including Cherrapunjii and Mawsynram, receives the highest rainfall in the world.

    ◦ Regional Divisions of Himalayas (based on cross-cutting rivers):

        ▪ Western Himalayas (Indus to Kali River): Sub-divided into Kashmir, Himachal, and Uttarakhand Himalayas.

            • Kashmir Himalaya: Known for snow-covered peaks (e.g., Mount K2 - Godwin Austin), glaciers (Siachen, Boltoro), lakes (Dal Lake), and 'Margs' (alpine meadows like Sonmarg, Gulmarg) used for winter sports. Rivers like Indus, Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab are perennial due to glaciers.

            • Himachal Himalaya: Rivers like Chenab, Ravi, Beas; lakes (Chandratal); and famous valleys (Kulu, Kangra) and tourist centers (Shimla, Manali). Hot springs are also present.

            • Uttarakhand Himalaya: Contains high peaks (Nandadevi, Badrinath), glaciers (Gangotri, Yamunotri), lakes (Nainital), and 'Bugyals' (alpine summer meadows), where transhumance (seasonal migration of shepherds) occurs. Flat valleys called 'Duns' (e.g., Dehradun) are found between Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks.

        ▪ Central Himalayas (Kali to Teesta River): Mostly in Nepal (Nepal Himalaya). In India, includes Western Sikkim and Darjeeling region. Mount Kanchenjunga and Nathula Pass are located here. Known for Darjeeling tea cultivation.

        ▪ Eastern Himalayas (Teesta to Brahmaputra River): Also called Assam Himalayas. Rivers like Brahmaputra, Lohit; passes like Bomdila and Diphu.

    ◦ Climate: The Himalayas create a climatic divide between the Indian Subcontinent and Central Asia. Climate varies with elevation: mild in lower slopes, extreme cold in high altitudes (Ladakh). Receives Southwest Monsoon rains, especially heavy in North Eastern India (Meghalaya Plateau) due to trapped winds.

    ◦ Drainage System: Formed by Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries. They are perennial (water-rich) due to rain and snow-melt. Create landforms like V-shaped valleys, gorges, and waterfalls.

    ◦ Soil: Predominantly mountain and forest soil. Valleys have fine-grained, humus-rich soil (e.g., Karewas in Kashmir Valley, ideal for saffron). High slopes have coarse soil.

    ◦ Natural Vegetation: Varies with altitude and rainfall.

        ▪ Tropical evergreen in Eastern Himalayas (high rainfall >200cm).

        ▪ Semi-evergreen and deciduous forests in valleys/lower slopes.

        ▪ Moist deciduous (1000-2000m), Coniferous (pine, deodar) higher up.

        ▪ Shrubs (junipers, rhododendrons) at higher altitudes, alpine meadows at highest altitudes.

    ◦ Wildlife: Habitat for diverse animals like yak, musk deer, one-horned rhinoceros, and snow leopard. Conservation efforts include National Parks and Biosphere Reserves.

    ◦ Human Life & Economy:

        ▪ Agriculture: Sparse due to terrain. Farmers use terrace farming for crops like paddy, legumes, potatoes. Tea is a major crop in Eastern Himalayas. Shifting cultivation by tribal populations in North Eastern Hills.

        ▪ Animal Rearing: Main occupation. Different animals (goat, cattle, sheep, horse, yak) reared based on elevation. Gujjars are shepherd tribes.

        ▪ Tourism: High economic potential. Pilgrimage (Kailas, Amarnath) for centuries. British developed resort towns (Shimla, Darjeeling). Modern adventure tourism (mountaineering, paragliding, skiing) has grown significantly.

Chapter 2: In the Expansive Plain (The North Indian Plain)

• Objective: To understand the formation, physiographic divisions, climate, natural vegetation, soil types, and human life in the vast Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain, highlighting its role in India's economy and cultural diversity.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Formation: An extensive alluvial plain formed by the continuous deposition of sediments carried by rivers. A vast depression south of the Himalayas (formed after Himalayan uplift) filled with alluvium from Himalayan and Peninsular rivers over millions of years. Average depth of alluvial deposits: 1000-2000m.

    ◦ Geomorphic Processes: External forces (running water, wind, glaciers) acting on Earth's surface cause disintegration of rocks, transportation of sediments, and their deposition in low-lying areas.

    ◦ Extent: Approximately 3200 km from Indus mouth to Ganga mouth, spreading over 2400 km in India. Width varies from 150 km to 300 km. Area: 7 lakh sq.km. Borders: Shiwaliks (north), Peninsular Plateau (south).

    ◦ Suitability for Agriculture: Characterised by fertile soil, adequate water supply, favourable climate, and flat topography.

    ◦ Regional Divisions (based on river systems, flow, topography):

        ▪ Rajasthan Plain: Westernmost, includes the Thar Desert (Marusthali, Rajasthan Bagar). West of the Aravali range. River Luni (non-perennial) and numerous salt lakes (Sambhar) are characteristic.

        ▪ Punjab-Haryana Plain: East/northeast of Rajasthan Plain, extends to Yamuna River. Formed by deposition from Satluj, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas (known as the Land of Five Rivers - Punjab). Divided into five major doabs (land between two converging rivers).

        ▪ Ganga Plain: East of Punjab-Haryana Plain, stretches from Bangladesh to Yamuna River. Formed by Ganga and its tributaries. Average elevation 200m, slopes east/southeast. Sub-divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Ganga Plain.

        ▪ Brahmaputra Plain (Assam Valley): Easternmost part, mainly in Assam. Formed by Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Rich in alluvial fans (fan-shaped sediment deposits where rivers enter plains from mountains). Features braided rivers, meanders, and ox-bow lakes (isolated curved water bodies formed from river meanders).

    ◦ Geomorphic Zones (North to South):

        ▪ Bhabar: Narrow belt (8-10km) parallel to Shiwalik foothills, formed by rocks and boulders where rivers disappear beneath.

        ▪ Tarai: Marshy and swampy tract (10-20km) parallel to Bhabar, where rivers re-emerge. Has luxurious natural vegetation and wildlife.

        ▪ Alluvial Plains: South of Tarai, consists of:

            • Bhangar: Older alluvial deposits.

            • Khadar: Newer alluvial deposits, ideal for agriculture.

        ▪ Depositional Landforms: Include riverine islands, sandbars, flood plains (fertile areas formed by alluvium during floods), and deltas (triangular landforms at river mouths formed by sediment deposition between distributaries, e.g., Sundarbans).

    ◦ Climate: Characterised by continental climate due to distance from oceans.

        ▪ Cold Weather Season (Mid-Nov to Jan): Excessive cold due to distance from oceans, snowfall in Himalayas, cold winds from West Asia, and apparent southward movement of the sun. Receives slight rainfall.

        ▪ Hot Weather Season (April-June): Extremely severe summer with temperatures up to 48°C in western parts. 'Loo' (hot, dry, oppressive wind from Rajasthan). Dust storms bring light relief.

        ▪ Southwest Monsoon Season (June-Sept): Main rainy season. Low-pressure area over NIP attracts two branches of monsoon winds (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal). Bay of Bengal branch bifurcates, causing widespread rains in Brahmaputra Plain and Ganga Plain. Rajasthan receives scanty rainfall.

        ▪ Northeast Monsoon Season (Retreating Monsoon): Generally dry climate in NIP as winds blow from northeast. Characterised by 'October heat' due to high temperature and atmospheric humidity.

    ◦ Natural Vegetation: Diversity influenced by topography, climate, soil.

        ▪ Tropical Deciduous Forests: Most prominent, divided into:

            • Dry Deciduous Forests: In regions with 70-100cm annual rainfall, trees shed leaves in dry season (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar plains).

            • Moist Deciduous Forests: In areas with 100-200cm rainfall, found along Shiwalik range and parts of Odisha/West Bengal (e.g., Teak, Sal).

        ▪ Tropical Thorn Forests: Prevalent in semi-arid areas (southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh) with low rainfall, consisting of grasses and shrubs.

        ▪ Swamp Forests: Found in saline/marshy areas like the Sundarbans delta (West Bengal), dominated by mangroves (e.g., Sundri trees) and habitat for Royal Bengal Tiger.

    ◦ Major Soil Types:

        ▪ Alluvial Soil: Widespread and most important, varies from sandy loam to clay. Ideal for agriculture. Includes Bhangar (older) and Khadar (newer).

        ▪ Red Soil: Found in southern Middle Ganga Plain, red due to iron content.

        ▪ Saline Soil: In Sundarbans delta, high salt content from seawater intrusion. Alluvial soil can turn saline with excessive irrigation.

        ▪ Peat Soil: Along coastal regions of West Bengal.

        ▪ Arid Soil: Extensively found in western parts (Rajasthan), sandy and saline, requires irrigation.

    ◦ Human Life & Economy:

        ▪ Population Density: Home to more than half of India's total population despite being less than one-fourth of the country's area.

        ▪ Agriculture: Backbone of India's agriculture-based economy. Known as the "granary of India" due to extensive cultivation supported by irrigation. Major crops include wheat, rice, jute, and sugarcane.

        ▪ Cropping Seasons: Kharif (June-Sept, tropical crops like rice, cotton), Rabi (Oct-March, temperate crops like wheat, gram), and Zaid (April-June, vegetables, fruits).

        ▪ Infrastructure: Well-developed road and railway network (except Thar Desert) facilitated industrialisation and urbanisation.

• Significance: Plays a significant role in shaping India's cultural diversity, ensuring food security, and facilitating cultural diffusion due to excellent transportation and communication networks.

Chapter 3: Plateau where the Earth’s History Slumbers (The Peninsular Plateau)

• Objective: To provide a detailed overview of the Peninsular Plateau, India's largest physical division, including its physical diversities, resource base, and influence on human life.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ General Features: An almost triangular-shaped physiographic unit. Average altitude 600-900m. One of the oldest landforms in the world. Features extensive tablelands, bordering mountain ranges, shallow river valleys, and diverse flora/fauna.

    ◦ Location & Extent: Lies south of the North Indian Plain. Bordered by the Western Ghats (west) and Eastern Ghats (east). Covers over 16 lakh sq.km.

    ◦ Types of Plateaus: Intermontane, Piedmont, and Continental Plateaus.

    ◦ Classification based on Location:

        ▪ Deccan Plateau:

            • Extent: Extensive plateau south of the Satpura ranges, between Western and Eastern Ghats. Northern boundary formed by Satpura, Maikala, and Mahadeo Hills. 'Deccan' from Sanskrit 'Dakshin' (South).

            • Geology: Composed of crystalline rocks like basalt, granite, and gneiss, formed from lava flows millions of years ago. The northwestern part is the Deccan Trap, made of basalt lava rocks.

            • Soil: Characterised by black soil (Regur soil), formed from basalt weathering. It is highly fertile, has high water-retaining capacity, and is good for cotton cultivation (also called black cotton soil). Rich in lime, iron, magnesium, and aluminium.

            • Western Ghats (Sahyadris): Forms the western edge of the Deccan Plateau. Extends about 1600 km from Kanyakumari to Gujarat. Height increases from north to south. Anamudi (2695m) in Anamalai is the highest peak in Peninsular India. Other names: Anamalai, Elamalai (Kerala), Nilgiris (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu), Sahyadris (Maharashtra). Source of most peninsular rivers.

            • Eastern Ghats: Comparatively lower in height than Western Ghats. Extends about 800 km from Mahanadi banks to Nilgiris. Cut across by east-flowing peninsular rivers. The Western and Eastern Ghats join at the Nilgiri Hills.

        ▪ Central Highlands:

            • Extent: Extensive plateau region north of Satpura ranges. Includes the Malwa Plateau.

            • Aravali Mountains: Form the western margin of Malwa Plateau, an example of old fold mountains or residual mountains. Mount Abu is a major hill station and the highest peak in Malwa Plateau.

            • Chota Nagpur Plateau: Eastern part of Central Highlands, situated south of Rajmahal Hills. Known as the richest storehouse of minerals. Rich in metallic (iron ore, bauxite, manganese, copper) and non-metallic minerals (limestone, coal). Major economic activities are mining and mineral-based industries.

            • Nilgiris: Meeting point of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. Known for hill stations (Ooty - Queen of Hills), tea plantations, and rich biodiversity, being the first Biosphere Reserve in India.

    ◦ Climatic Diversity:

        ▪ General Climate: Tropical monsoon climate, but with considerable variation in temperature and rainfall. Factors include tropical location, peninsula shape, distance from ocean, mountain orientation, and monsoon direction.

        ▪ Temperature: Average summer temperature above 30°C. Deccan Plateau reaches 38°C in March. Higher elevations in Western Ghats have lower temperatures. High diurnal range of temperature (difference between max and min daily temperature) in the interiors.

        ▪ Rainfall: Moderate or scanty throughout, except western slopes of Western Ghats.

            • Southwest Monsoon: Causes heavy rainfall (250-400cm) along the windward (western) slopes of the Western Ghats. The eastern slopes and plateau regions close to them are rain shadow regions, receiving very little rainfall (less than 50cm) as descending air is dry.

            • Northeast Monsoon: Generally dry climate in the Peninsular Plateau. Though low-pressure whirls over Bay of Bengal cause heavy showers on the east coast (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh), the plateau largely remains unaffected.

    ◦ Peninsular Rivers:

        ▪ General Flow: General slope is from west to east. The Western Ghats act as the major water divide.

        ▪ East-flowing Rivers: Most originate from the Western Ghats and flow into the Bay of Bengal. Examples: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.

            • Godavari: The largest peninsular river, also called Dakshin Ganga.

            • Kaveri: Known as perennial due to receiving rains from both southwest and northeast monsoons. Subject of a long-standing inter-state water dispute.

        ▪ West-flowing Rivers: Most flow swiftly into the Arabian Sea. Exceptions: Narmada and Tapti, which originate from the Central Highlands and flow westward. The Sardar Sarovar Multipurpose River Valley Project is on the Narmada. The Narmada Bachao Andolan protested large dam construction on Narmada.

        ▪ North-flowing Rivers: Some rivers like Chambal, Betwa, Son, and Ken originate from the Malwa Plateau and join Yamuna or Ganga.

        ▪ Characteristics: Generally seasonal in flow (decreases in summer, overflows in monsoons). Generally not navigable due to uneven terrain.

        ▪ Multipurpose River Valley Projects: Dams built across rivers for flood control, irrigation, power generation, inland transport, fishing, and tourism (e.g., Hirakud, Thungabhadra).

        ▪ Chambal Ravines: Unique badland topography formed by continuous erosion by Chambal River and its tributaries.

    ◦ Natural Vegetation: In accordance with physiography and climate.

        ▪ Tropical Deciduous Forests: Most widespread, divided into moist (100-200cm rainfall, e.g., Teak, Sal, in Eastern W. Ghats slopes, MP, Chattisgarh) and dry (70-100cm rainfall, shed leaves in drought, e.g., Teak, Rosewood).

        ▪ Tropical Thorn Forests: In high temperature, low rainfall (<75cm) regions (e.g., semi-arid Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh).

        ▪ Southern Montane Forests: Along higher reaches (Western Ghats, Nilgiris); temperate above 1500m, sub-tropical below. Shola forests (sub-tropical vegetation along Nilgiris, Palani, Anamalai) are distinctive.

    ◦ Soil Types: Mostly in-situ soils (formed where they rest).

        ▪ Black Soil: Formed from basalt weathering in NW Deccan Trap; fertile, good for cotton.

        ▪ Red Soil: From weathering of old crystalline metamorphic rocks, red due to iron.

        ▪ Laterite Soil: Formed by leaching of minerals in areas with alternating heavy rain and drought; less fertile but used for plantation crops (tea, coffee, rubber).

        ▪ Mountain Soil: Along Western and Eastern Ghats, suitable for plantation crops.

    ◦ Agriculture: Generally less suitable than plains due to undulating topography, thin topsoil, exposed rocks.

        ▪ Crops: Rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, tobacco. Plantation crops dominate in Western Ghats (tea, coffee, spices).

        ▪ Coffee: Karnataka is the leading producer, followed by Kerala. Introduced by Bababudan in 17th century.

        ▪ Tea: Plantations in Nilgiri Hills and Western Ghats (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala); labour-intensive.

        ▪ Sugarcane: Favorable conditions in Deccan Plateau (black lava soil, tropical climate, high sucrose).

        ▪ Cotton: Thrives in black soil of Deccan-Malwa Plateau; Gujarat and Maharashtra are leading producers.

    ◦ Mineral Resources: Rich in minerals, largely concentrated in crystalline rock layers and hilly tracts. Chota Nagpur Plateau is the "heartland of minerals" and the richest belt. Divided into Northeastern, Central, Southern, Southwestern, and Northwestern mineral regions.

    ◦ Human Life: Moderately populated. Early settlements were limited by terrain/climate. Later, mining activities, road/rail networks, mineral-based industries, and commercial agriculture led to increased population and growth of urban centers.

Chapter 4: Human Resources for National Development

• Objective: To provide sufficient knowledge about wealth generation and distribution, human resource development, its challenges, and economic perspectives, essential for responsible citizenship.

• Key Concepts:

    ◦ Factors of Production (Economic Resources): Essential for production of any product.

        ▪ Land: Natural resources like soil and water. Reward: Rent.

        ▪ Labour: Intellectual or physical efforts for reward. Reward: Wages. Considered the most important factor, providing the main source of income for most people.

        ▪ Capital: Man-made resources aiding production (machines, equipment). Reward: Interest.

        ▪ Entrepreneurship/Organisation: Combining other factors to enable production. Reward: Profit.

    ◦ Exchange Systems:

        ▪ Barter System: Exchange of goods for goods. Limitations: Difficulty in determining price, lack of a common medium of exchange.

        ▪ Evolution of Money: From animal skins, agricultural products, cattle to metals, coins, paper money, and modern forms like plastic cards and electronic money. Money became the basic unit for pricing products and factors of production.

    ◦ Human Resources:

        ▪ Definition: People who can work and contribute to the production process. They convert natural resources into products using physical power and intelligence.

        ▪ Productivity: The ability of each factor of production to produce goods and services. The quality of the population, not just its size, determines human resources.

        ▪ Labour Force: Population of 15 years of age and above who are willing and able to work. A high number in this age group positively influences income and economic growth.

    ◦ Human Capital:

        ▪ Definition: The economic value of human resources. Individuals become human capital through education and job training.

        ▪ Human Capital Formation: Additions made over time to the stock of human capital. Can be increased by ensuring higher education, proper training, and healthcare.

        ▪ Factors Influencing Human Capital Formation:

            • Education: Enables effective use of modern technology, better jobs, higher income, and a high standard of living. Leads to increased ability, technological knowledge, skill development, better jobs, income, quality of life, and national development. Requires massive investment across public, cooperative, and private sectors.

            • Knowledge Economy: An economic system that integrates intelligence, innovative technological ideas, and information technology in economic activities, aiming for intellectual products and capital. Scientists, researchers, policymakers, software developers strengthen this sector.

            • Health: Defined by WHO as a state of physical, mental, and social well-being. Poor health decreases productivity and slows production. Essential for individual and national development. Measures include preventive medicine, immunization, nutritious food, clean water, sanitation, and recreation. Government investments in healthcare strengthen human capital. Kerala is a model in healthcare.

            • Job Training: Provides professional skills, increases productivity, and contributes to peak human capital formation.

            • Migration: Permanent or temporary movement of people between regions. Causes social, economic, and cultural changes. Government bears expenditure for basic needs to foster human capital formation in affected regions.

            • Access to Information: Essential for people to gather information about services in education, health, and employment, thereby fostering human capital formation.

    ◦ Challenges faced by Human Capital Formation:

        ▪ Poverty: The state of not being able to meet basic needs. A vicious cycle where low income leads to inability to access education/health, causing low productivity and perpetuating poverty. Governments implement schemes to alleviate poverty (e.g., Kerala's model).

        ▪ Unemployment: A condition where a healthy, capable person willing to work at prevailing wages cannot find employment. Hinders maximum utilisation of human resources.

            • Types: Open unemployment (willing to work but unemployed), Structural unemployment (job loss due to new technology), Seasonal unemployment (employed only in specific seasons), Disguised unemployment (more labourers employed than required without increasing output).

• Conclusion: Human capital formation is crucial for a country's economic power. Governments must prioritise education, health, migration, job training, and information access to effectively utilise human resources and achieve national progress through suitable programmes and planning.

SCERT Based Question answers from all Chapters with answers

Here are the answers to the questions from the provided Social Science textbooks, drawing directly from the source material and indicating where the information is not explicitly provided or requires further research as an activity:

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From "27_Social Science I Eng.pdf"

Chapter 1: Moving Forward from the Stone Age

• Question (page 7): What does he say about the kind of tools that were used by humans to protect themselves from wild animals?

    ◦ Primitive humans initially "could only throw stones at them" for protection. Later, they "began to make out of stone: axes, spears and many other things, including fine stone needles".

• Question (page 8): What could be the purposes for which humans in that period used such tools?

    ◦ The tools were used for "protecting themselves from animals" and "For hunting".

• Question (page 12): Do the tools in the picture resemble any tool that you are familiar with? If yes, which are they?

    ◦ The source provides images of various stone tools (e.g., pebble tools, biface core tools, flake tools, chopper-chopping tools, blade technique tools, core and flakes), but it does not explicitly state what modern tools they resemble.

• Question (page 12): What do you understand from these pictures?

    ◦ The pictures show artistic creations of primitive humans, indicating that "various communication and sculptures were employed during the late Palaeolithic period". Archaeologists suggest these depictions include animals and women (e.g., Cussac Cave, Venus figure). Carvings on bone found in La Garma Cave in Spain also serve as evidence of human artistic skills from that time.

• Learning activity (page 13): Conduct a discussion on the topic 'Tool making and Technological Development during the Palaeolithic Period.'

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 15): Let’s see what information could be gathered on human life from the tools and art of the Palaeolithic Age.

    ◦ During the Palaeolithic Age, humans used rough stone tools, lived in caves and open spaces, and their primary means of livelihood were hunting and gathering. Society was organised into bands (small groups of fewer than a hundred members, bound by blood relation). Men were engaged in hunting and women in gathering. Food was not stored, and a nomadic life prevailed.

• Question (page 16): Examine the difference between Palaeolithic tools and Mesolithic tools.

    ◦ Palaeolithic tools were characterised by the use of rough (unpolished) stone tools. Mesolithic tools were generally smaller than Palaeolithic ones and are notably associated with the use of microliths (very small tools).

• Question (page 17): Note down the features of the Palaeolithic centres mentioned on the world map.

    ◦ The source mentions Lascaux cave, Cussac Cave, La Garma cave, and Chauvet cave as Palaeolithic centres. While it refers to them as sites of artistic creations and human artistic skills, it does not provide specific detailed features of each individual centre beyond their names and association with cave art.

• Question (page 18): Look at the pictures given above and list down the activities depicted in them.

    ◦ The pictures depict activities such as Hunting, indications of domestication of animals, amusements, and division of labour based on gender.

• Question (page 19): What are the changes in the Neolithic Age mentioned in this description?

    ◦ The Neolithic Age brought about "radical change in human life". The text highlights a "change in human interaction with his surroundings", which led to humans starting new ways of living, specifically the beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals. These changes ensured steady food availability, leading to permanent settlements and agrarian villages, the introduction of pottery, and the emergence of other occupations beyond farming.

• Question (page 20): List the differences between Palaeolithic and Mesolithic human life.

    ◦ Palaeolithic Age:

        ▪ Tools: Used rough stone tools.

        ▪ Livelihood: Hunting and gathering.

        ▪ Lifestyle: Nomadic, lived in caves and open spaces, food not stored.

        ▪ Social Units: Bands (small groups of fewer than 100 members bound by blood).

    ◦ Mesolithic Age:

        ▪ Tools: Used microliths (very small stone tools).

        ▪ Livelihood: Hunting and gathering, with indications of domestication of animals.

        ▪ Communication: Development of human communication began towards the end of the Palaeolithic period, but is mainly seen in India during the Mesolithic Age (e.g., cave art).

        ▪ Social: Division of labour based on gender. Evidence suggests seeds were collected and stored, and animal hide used for clothing.

• Question (page 20): Can you identify the countries in this region? (referring to Fertile Crescent)

    ◦ The map (Map 2) shows the geographical area known as the 'Fertile Crescent', but the source does not explicitly list the countries within this region.

• Question (page 23): Find out the countries in which Neolithic sites are located.

    ◦ Based on the provided information and Map 3:

        ▪ Jarmo: Located in the Kurdish Hills of Iraq.

        ▪ Ali Kosh: Located in Iran.

        ▪ Mehrgarh: Located in Pakistan (described as a site in ancient India).

        ▪ Jericho: Although marked on the map, its country is not explicitly stated in the text.

• Question (page 26): What are the advantages of copper tools over stone tools?

    ◦ The advantages of copper tools were that they could be changed into suitable shape and form and had durability.

• Question (page 27): List out the Bronze Age civilisations.

    ◦ The source explicitly states that "The Harappan civilization in India belongs to the Bronze Age". It does not list other Bronze Age civilisations.

• Question (page 32): Let us compare the life of the people in the early Vedic and the later Vedic periods.

    ◦ Early Vedic Period:

        ▪ Region: Sapta Sindhu region.

        ▪ Economy: Pastoral economy.

        ▪ Lifestyle: Semi-nomads.

        ▪ Women's Status: Comparatively higher social status for women.

        ▪ Agriculture: Forest was cleared and burned for cultivation.

        ▪ Society: Consisted of many tribes.

        ▪ Rituals (Yajnas): Were simple and could be done by the head of the family.

        ▪ Deities: Natural forces were worshipped.

    ◦ Later Vedic Period:

        ▪ Region: Extended up to the Gangetic plain.

        ▪ Economy: Agriculture was given importance.

        ▪ Lifestyle: Settled life.

        ▪ Women's Status: The social status of women declined.

        ▪ Technology: Use of iron.

        ▪ Society: Varna system became stronger.

        ▪ Rituals (Yajnas): Became complicated and expensive; the privilege of a particular section.

        ▪ Deities: New deities came to be worshipped.

        ▪ Crafts: Beginning of various crafts.

• Learning activity (page 32): Organise a seminar on the changes from Stone Age to Metal Age.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

Chapter 2: Ideas and Early States

• Question (page 36): How did the development of an agricultural economy set the stage for the rise of new ideas in the 6th century BCE? Discuss.

    ◦ The widespread use of iron tools led to increased agricultural production and the growth of trade and cities in the Ganga basin. This led to a socio-economic system based on agriculture and cattle, which was not in harmony with the Vedic practice that emphasised rituals often involving cattle sacrifice, negatively affecting the cattle population. This discrepancy forced people to question Vedic rituals. Additionally, the Vaishyas, who achieved material progress through trade, and the rich Gahapathis, who owned land and engaged in trade, desired a higher social status than the existing Varna system allowed. This social and economic backdrop fostered the emergence of new ideological concepts, particularly Jain and Buddhist philosophies, which gained support from Vaishyas and Gahapathis.

• Question (page 40): Note down the features of Jainism.

    ◦ Jainism's doctrines include: do not harm any living being, and birth and rebirth are determined on the basis of Karma. It denies the authenticity of the Vedas. For attaining 'Moksha' (salvation), Mahavira proposed the 'Triratnas': Right Belief, Right Knowledge, and Right Action. Monks and nuns were instructed not to steal, not to lie, not to own property, and to practise celibacy. A core belief is that in this world, everything has life.

• Question (page 40): What did the word ‘Palli' suggest in relation to place names? Find out.

    ◦ The source poses this question regarding the word 'Palli' in relation to place names indicating Buddhist beliefs in Kerala, but does not provide the answer within the text.

• Question (page 46): Do you think the activities of Buddhist monastic organisations were democratic? Evaluate.

    ◦ Yes, the activities of Buddhist monastic organisations (Sanghas) appear democratic because decisions were made in the Sangha through discussions and the opinion of the majority. Furthermore, all people were admitted to the Sangha regardless of caste and gender, indicating an inclusive and egalitarian approach for decision-making.

• Question (page 47): Why are they called materialists?

    ◦ The followers of this school of thought (promulgated by Ajita Kesakambalin) were called materialists because they opined that all religious practices are meaningless and that there is neither Ihaloka (this world) or Paraloka (the next world). They believed that living beings "are made up of four elements. When they die, their solid matter dissolves in the earth. Liquidity...". Their focus on material existence and rejection of the spiritual explains the term.

• Question (page 48): Find out and list the common ideas propounded by the Buddha and Mahavira.

    ◦ Common ideas propounded by Buddha and Mahavira include:

        ▪ Emphasis on non-violence (Ahimsa).

        ▪ Rejection of the authenticity of the Vedas (Mahavira).

        ▪ Their teachings were simple.

        ▪ Both rejected the caste system.

        ▪ They spread their ideas in Prakrit and Pali languages respectively, which were languages of the common people.

• Question (page 48): How did Buddha respond to the socio-economic conditions that prevailed in the 6th century BCE? Discuss.

    ◦ Buddha's teachings were highly relevant to the socio-economic conditions:

        ▪ His concept of ‘Ahimsa’ (non-violence) was suitable for the Ganga basin as cattle were crucial for agriculture (preparing land) and transporting goods, activities that were adversely affected by widely prevalent Vedic rituals involving animal sacrifice.

        ▪ He rejected the caste system, which was becoming more rigid, and made his teachings simple and accessible in Pali, the language of common people.

        ▪ He advocated for a "Middle Path", forbidding severe asceticism and luxurious living.

        ▪ He promoted mutual respect and proper performance of duties within family life for men and women, and stressed that employers should treat servants and workers with courtesy, providing adequate food, fair wages, and care in times of sickness. This promoted ethical conduct in economic and social interactions.

• Question (page 48): What can we learn from this about the administrative system of Vajji at that time?

    ◦ From the Digha Nikaya's description of Vajji, we learn that decisions were taken jointly through discussions and that people worked together. Elders were respected, supported, and listened to. Women lived freely, places of worship existed, and people of different faiths could move about freely and were respected. This suggests a system that valued collective decision-making, respect for elders, social harmony, and religious tolerance.

• Learning activity (page 51): Find out and list 16 Mahajanapadas from the map given below.

    ◦ Based on Map 1, the 16 Mahajanapadas are: Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Kashi, Malla, Vajji, Magadha, Anga, Vatsa, Chedi, Avanti, Ashmaka, Gandhara, Kamboja, Surasena, Matsya.

• Question (page 52): What did you learn from this description in the Buddhist work Digha Nikaya?

    ◦ This description reveals that cities varied significantly in their level of development and perceived importance. Ananda's suggestion that Buddha should attain Nirvana in a "bigger city" like Champa, Rajagriha, Shravasti, Saketa, Kausambi, or Varanasi, rather than Kushinara (described as having "mud huts in a forest"), indicates that there were already well-developed urban centres known for their infrastructure and perceived significance in the 6th century BCE.

• Question (page 55): Identify and discuss the various stages of growth from a tribal political system to Mahajanapadas and their characteristics.

    ◦ The growth from tribal political systems to Mahajanapadas occurred in several stages:

        1. Vedic Period (Tribal Social System): Initially, society was tribal, with tribes known as ‘Jana’.

        2. Formation of Janapadas: With the widespread adoption of agriculture, these tribal communities began to settle permanently in places, often by burning down forests to create farmlands and residential areas. These settled areas became known as ‘Janapadas’.

        3. Emergence of Mahajanapadas (Second Urbanisation): Agricultural surplus production in the Janapadas led to the growth of trade and the development of towns, which also became manufacturing centres for crafts. To coordinate these diverse economic activities, new regulations and a more complex governance structure became necessary, leading to the disappearance of the simpler tribal governance. The deep connection with agriculture and land fostered a sense of owning one's land, which propelled the formation of larger states. The Buddhist work Anguttaranikaya lists 16 such "political entities" that emerged, known as ‘Mahajanapadas’. Historians refer to these changes, including the growth of cities, as the ‘second urbanisation’.

    ◦ Characteristics of Mahajanapadas:

        ▪ Developed a regular taxation system (e.g., 'Bali' as tax, 'Bhaga' of grains and cattle).

        ▪ Maintained a standing army.

        ▪ Forest dwellers paid forest produce, and artisans paid in labour.

        ▪ Kings were assisted by officials like Senani, Purohita, and Gramani.

        ▪ They had forts and capital cities.

• Question (page 55): Do you think that the geographical features were the main reason for the growth of Magadha? Why?

    ◦ Yes, geographical features were a main reason for Magadha's growth:

        ▪ Magadha was a fertile region with good rainfall, supporting agricultural prosperity.

        ▪ It had large deposits of iron ore, ensuring a ready supply of iron for tools and weapons, which was crucial for both agriculture and warfare.

        ▪ The forests of Magadha provided large numbers of elephants, which were a significant military asset in ancient wars and contributed to Magadhan victories.

        ▪ The Ganga River and its tributaries offered easy transportation of goods, facilitating trade and economic development. These advantages collectively contributed significantly to Magadha's dominance.

• Question (page 60): What do you understand about the Maurya kingdom from this inscription?

    ◦ The Rumindei Inscription reveals that Emperor Asoka (Devanampiya Piyadasi) visited Lumbini, the birthplace of Buddha Shakyamuni, twenty years after his coronation, demonstrating royal patronage and reverence for Buddhism. To mark Buddha's birthplace, a stupa surrounded by a granite wall was erected. Furthermore, it shows a clear administrative policy of taxation and exemption, as the people of Lumbini were exempted from the ‘bali’ tax and only required to pay one-eighth of their harvest as 'bhaga'.

• Question (page 61): Find the capitals of the provinces from Map 2 and complete the table.

    ◦ State Capital: Pataliputra.

    ◦ Provincial Capitals:

        ▪ Southern province: Suvarnagiri.

        ▪ Western province: Ujjayini.

        ▪ Northern province: Takshashila.

        ▪ Eastern province: Tosali (Kalinga).

• Question (page 63): What features of the present Indian administrative system can be seen in the Mauryan administrative system? Discuss and compare.

    ◦ Several features of the Mauryan administrative system resemble aspects of the present Indian administrative system:

        ▪ Decentralised Administration/Provincial Divisions: Like modern India which is divided into states for administrative convenience, the Maurya kingdom was divided into provinces with capitals, each under the control of a governor, while the main capital (Pataliputra) was under direct imperial control.

        ▪ Standing Army/Defence: The Mauryas maintained a standing army (including cavalry, chariots, elephants, navy) managed by a large committee. Modern India also has a robust military for national defense.

        ▪ Taxation System: The Mauryas had a system of taxes ('Bali', 'Bhaga'), similar to the modern tax collection system necessary for state functions.

        ▪ Justice System: Kautilya's Arthashastra refers to 'Danda' (justice). Modern India has an established judicial system.

        ▪ Advisory Roles: The king was assisted by officials like Senani, Purohita, and Gramani, comparable to ministerial and bureaucratic roles in modern government.

        ▪ Welfare and Public Policy: Asoka's Dhamma focused on social harmony, respect, and kindness, reflecting the welfare goals of a modern state.

• Question (page 64): Observe the map and find out the regions through which trade was conducted.

    ◦ Based on Map 3, trade was conducted through major centres such as Takshashila, Ujjayini, Suvarnagiri, Broach, Pataliputra, and Thamralipti. Goods were transported via "land, sea and rivers".

• Question (page 67): Compare the Mahajanapadas of India and the city-states of Greece.

    ◦ Formation and Evolution:

        ▪ Mahajanapadas: Evolved from tribal Janapadas due to agricultural surplus, trade growth, and the need for new regulations, leading to a "second urbanisation".

        ▪ Greek City-States: Formed as villages grouped together primarily for security and governance.

    ◦ Structure and Geography:

        ▪ Mahajanapadas: Larger political entities (16 identified) covering extensive regions, often centered around fertile river basins.

        ▪ Greek City-States: Smaller, self-governing units consisting of a city and its surrounding agricultural villages. Often geographically isolated by hills, mountains, or being islands.

    ◦ Governance:

        ▪ Mahajanapadas: Typically ruled by kings, with standing armies and taxation systems. Some, like Vajji, showed elements of collective decision-making.

        ▪ Greek City-States: Varied forms of government. Athens, for example, had a form of democracy where male citizens over 30 made decisions.

    ◦ Economy:

        ▪ Mahajanapadas: Based on agriculture, with growing trade and manufacturing centers.

        ▪ Greek City-States: Also had agriculture. Athens was a prosperous trading center, known for shipbuilding and seafaring.

• Question (page 67): How did the Athenian system of government differ from modern democracy?

    ◦ The Athenian system of government differed significantly from modern democracy in key aspects:

        ▪ Exclusion of Citizens: In Athens, women, artisans, and foreigners (traders) were not considered citizens and thus excluded from participation. Modern democracies generally grant voting rights and citizenship to all adult residents, regardless of gender, occupation, or place of birth (after naturalisation).

        ▪ Direct vs. Representative: Athenian citizens (eligible males) directly formed a committee and met to take decisions on important matters. Modern democracies are predominantly representative democracies, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

• Learning activity (page 69): Prepare a short biographical text based on the lives of thinkers who popularised new ideas in the 6th century BCE. Make them attractive, by adding pictures.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

Chapter 3: Land Grants and the Indian Society

• Question (page 70): What is the purpose of land grants by the king?

    ◦ Land grants were issued by kings "in order to attain victory, longevity and welfare and peace in this world as well as in afterlife". More broadly, the practice of giving land grants began "to please the Brahmins who were dominant in the society".

• Question (page 70): When did the practice of land grants start? Why?

    ◦ Mention of land grants can be found in Buddhist works. However, the practice "became widespread and also produced far-reaching consequences" during the post-Mauryan period and was particularly widespread under the Guptas (4th-6th century CE). The primary reason was "to please the Brahmins who were dominant in the society".

• Question (page 70): Were such grants common?

    ◦ Yes, the practice of land grants "became widespread" during the post-Mauryan period and particularly under the Guptas.

• Question (page 72): Locate them in the map given below. (referring to dynasties after Mauryas)

    ◦ Map 1 shows the locations of several dynasties that came to power after the fall of the Mauryas, including: Satavahanas, Shakas, Vakatakas, Guptas, Kushanas, Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas.

• Question (page 78): Find out the arts and crafts of the period from the information and complete the table.

    ◦ Jewellery made of gold, silver and precious stones: Jewellery making / Goldsmithing

    ◦ Glassware: Glass making / Glass blowing

    ◦ Silk, cotton textiles: Textile weaving

    ◦ Sculptures in ivory: Ivory carving / Sculpture

• Question (page 80): Discuss the characteristics of the Samantha System that came into existence during the Gupta period.

    ◦ The Samantha System (also called 'Indian Feudalism') developed due to widespread land grants. Its characteristics include:

        ▪ Emergence of Landlords: Land grants led to the formation of a "powerful section" of landlords in society.

        ▪ Decline of Royal Authority: The king's authority over the donated land gradually declined.

        ▪ Transfer of Rights: Recipients of land grants gained the right to collect taxes and administer justice over the donated land. They also acquired the right to further grant this land to others.

        ▪ Remuneration in Land: Kings and nobles began to give land grants instead of cash as remuneration for services.

        ▪ Bound Labour: Farmers, agricultural labourers, and slaves became "rightless dependents of the landlords," bound to the land, labouring for their masters, and providing free services in addition to taxes.

        ▪ Autonomy for Samanthas: The Gupta kings allowed rulers of conquered territories to continue as ‘Samanthas’ with autonomy in their areas, not interfering in their administration or succession.

• Question (page 83): Find out in which present Indian states are the Gupta cities marked in the above map, located.

    ◦ Based on Map 2:

        ▪ Kanauj: Uttar Pradesh.

        ▪ Shravasti: Uttar Pradesh.

        ▪ Kausambi: Uttar Pradesh.

        ▪ Ujjayini: Madhya Pradesh.

        ▪ Mathura: Uttar Pradesh.

        ▪ Vaishali: Bihar.

• Question (page 89): What do you understand from this text about the powers of the king during the Gupta period?

    ◦ The text suggests that Gupta kings held extensive and near-divine powers. The Allahabad Prasasti describes Samudragupta as "Equal to Kubera, Varuna, Indra and Anthaka and with no equal rival on the face of the Earth," indicating that the king was considered equal to God. Beyond this immense status, the king also had responsibilities, including protecting the country from aggressions, protecting the Varnas (including Jain monks and weaker sections), and administering justice.

• Question (page 99): Discuss the economic changes brought about by the spread of the land grant system to South India.

    ◦ The spread of land grants to South India by the 6th century CE, primarily due to Brahmin migration, brought several economic changes:

        ▪ Agricultural Development: Brahmins, with their knowledge of agricultural technology and climate, contributed to the expansion of agriculture. Kings and local administrative bodies encouraged agriculture by building reservoirs and maintaining irrigation facilities.

        ▪ Temple-Centric Economy: Temples, controlled by Brahmins, became significant centres of economic activity, leading to prosperity in surrounding areas.

        ▪ Growth of Trade and Crafts: Surplus agricultural production stimulated internal trade. Mahabalipuram became a busy port, facilitating trade with Chinese and Arab merchants through ports like Korkai and Kayalpattinam. Merchant guilds, known as 'Vanika' communities, specialised in particular products, supporting a variety of crafts.

• Learning activity (page 105): Organise a seminar on ‘Land Grants and their consequences during the Gupta Rule’.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

Chapter 4: Distribution of Power in Indian Constitution

• Question (page 109): Which ideas put forward by the National Movement were included in the Objective Resolution?

    ◦ The Objective Resolution included key ideals: India would be an independent sovereign republic and would frame its own constitution. The independent India would be a union of former British Indian territories, Indian states, and other willing parts. The territories forming the Union would be autonomous units with powers not vested in the Central Government. All powers would emanate from the people. It promised social, economic, and political justice; equality of status, opportunity, and before the law; and fundamental freedoms of speech, expression, belief, worship, profession, association, and assembly (subject to law and public morality) for all.

• Question (page 111): Identify the ideas presented in the Objective Resolution that were included in the Preamble of the Constitution of India and compare them.

    ◦ The source states that "the various ideas of the Objective Resolution are included in the Preamble of our Constitution". While it doesn't list the Preamble's exact wording, the Objective Resolution's core principles of sovereignty, justice (social, economic, political), liberty (of thought, expression, belief, faith, worship), equality (of status and opportunity), and the concept of the republic and union, are all foundational to the Preamble's spirit.

• Question (page 113): How many parts and schedules are there in the constitution at present? Find out.

    ◦ The source states that the Constitution of India, "adopted on 26 November 1949, had 395 articles and 8 schedules in 22 parts". It does not provide the current number of parts and schedules.

• Question (page 114): Find and list the reasons why India adopted the federal system based on the above seminar paper.

    ◦ India adopted the federal system to:

        ▪ Strengthen democracy through power sharing between the Centre and the States.

        ▪ Help maintain the diversity and unity of the country.

        ▪ Effectively counter separatist tendencies by ensuring regional representation.

        ▪ Achieve economic progress and ensure the welfare of all sections by integrating various levels of government.

        ▪ Make the concept of democracy more meaningful by sharing power between the centre and the states.

        ▪ Accommodate the social, regional and geographical diversity of India and preserve the unity and integrity of the country.

• Question (page 120): Have you noticed the news headlines given above? Note which list these topics belong to.

    ◦ New train allowed to Kerala: Union List (Railways).

    ◦ Kerala Jail Rules were revised: State List (Jails).

    ◦ Revising the structure of undergraduate courses: Concurrent List (Education).

    ◦ National Forest Policy announced: Concurrent List (Forestry).

    ◦ New Police Policy announced: State List (Police).

    ◦ India signs diplomatic agreement with Sri Lanka: Union List (Foreign Affairs).

• Question (page 127): How many Lok Sabha constituencies are there in Kerala? Find out their names.

    ◦ The source does not provide this information.

• Question (page 132): Read the news headlines above. Discuss the need for constitutional amendment.

    ◦ Constitutional amendments are necessary for "making of corrections, omissions or additions to the Constitution". They are "helpful in altering the Constitution from time to time considering the socio-political needs". The news headlines (e.g., GST amendment for economic policy, education as a fundamental right, voting age reduction) demonstrate how amendments are used to adapt the Constitution to changing societal demands and political realities.

• Question (page 132): Complete the following list.

    ◦ Renaming of the states: Flexible Amendment (amended by Parliament with simple majority).

    ◦ 86th Constitutional Amendment: Rigid Amendment (amended with a special majority of both houses of Parliament, as it relates to Fundamental Rights).

    ◦ Amendment in the Concurrent List: More Rigid Amendment (amended with special majority of both houses of Parliament along with approval of not less than half of the states, as it relates to division of powers).

• Question (page 138): Read the given statements and put ( ) against the true ones and ( ) the false ones.

    ◦ The head of the Executive is the Prime Minister. (False – The President is the constitutional head, though PM is the real executive head).

    ◦ The President has discretionary powers. (True).

    ◦ The head of the cabinet is the Prime Minister. (True).

    ◦ The Prime Minister is the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces. (False – The President is the Commander-in-Chief).

    ◦ Governors are appointed by the President. (True).

    ◦ The President submits his resignation to the Prime Minister. (False – The President submits resignation to the Vice President).

    ◦ The Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor. (False – The Prime Minister is appointed by the President).

• Learning activity (page 144): Organise a seminar on the salient features of Indian Federalism.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 144): Prepare a list of five topics each from each of the three lists of the Constitution.

    ◦ This is a learning activity, but here are examples from the text:

        ▪ Union List: Foreign Affairs, Defence, Railways, Banking, Citizenship.

        ▪ State List: Agriculture, Jails, Police, Local Government.

        ▪ Concurrent List: Education, Forestry, Trade Unions, Marriage, Birth and Death Registration.

Chapter 5: Demographic Trends in India

• Question (page 146): What problems arise when the population increases?

    ◦ Problems arising from increased population include poverty, unemployment, and starvation. It can also lead to an "alarming issue" that creates "far reaching crisis in the health sector and quality of life," increases "poverty and malnutrition," and causes "millions [to] migrate to big cities". This affects the country's "socio-economic progress" and ability to achieve "sustainable development".

• Question (page 150): When was the census started in India? When was the last census conducted in India?

    ◦ The source states that the census is "usually conducted once in ten years in India". The provided table on "India’s Population Growth" starts from 1901. The last census year mentioned in the table is 2011. The text does not explicitly state when the census first started.

• Question (page 152): Prepare a note on population growth in India by observing the given table and graph.

    ◦ India's total population has shown significant growth over the years. Starting from 238 million in 1901, it reached 1210 million in 2011. There was a slight decrease between 1911 (252 million) and 1921 (251 million), possibly due to factors not specified in the text. However, since 1921, the population has shown a consistent and substantial increase decade after decade.

• Question (page 156): What might be the reasons for their migration in search of employment?

    ◦ Reasons for migration in search of employment often include the pursuit of "Better income" and "High social status". It also includes migration for "employment and education" or "for a higher standard of living".

• Question (page 158): Different types of migration are given below. Identify which migration they are and add more examples to the list.

    ◦ Malayalees working in foreign countries: International Migration.

    ◦ North Indian workers working in the construction sector in Kerala: Internal Migration.

    ◦ Students going abroad for higher studies: International Migration.

    ◦ Additional examples based on provided definitions:

        ▪ Internal Migration: Rural to urban migration for better job opportunities within a country.

        ▪ International Migration: People migrating to another country for permanent settlement or due to conflict (though specific examples for conflict are outside the text, the concept fits).

• Question (page 161): Where do we register births and deaths in rural areas? Where do we register births and deaths in urban areas?

    ◦ The source states that "it is mandatory to register births and deaths on time" and implies reporting to "relevant agencies", but it does not specify the particular agencies for rural versus urban areas.

• Question (page 161): Observe the table and graph given birth rate and death rate in India. Find out the birth rate and death rate in India as per 2011 census.

    ◦ The provided table for Birth and Death Rate in India (1901-2001) gives data only up to 2001 (Birth Rate: 26, Death Rate: 9). It does not provide data for 2011.

• Question (page 162): What are the social problems in densely populated areas? Complete the table.

    ◦ Social problems in densely populated areas include: Lack of open spaces, Pollution, Lack of water storage, and Crowding.

• Question (page 162): Examine the 2011 Census report and identify the states with the highest population and population density, and the states with the lowest. - Prepare the chart and display it in the class.

    ◦ The source states that "According to the 2011 census, Delhi has the highest population density whereas Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest". It does not identify the states with the highest or lowest overall population. This is a learning activity requiring external research.

• Question (page 163): Prepare a note discussing how epidemics, famines, and climate change affect mortality rates.

    ◦ This is a discussion/preparation activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 163): Find out the birth and death rate in India and Kerala based on the 2011 census report and write it in your notebook.

    ◦ The provided table for birth and death rates in India only extends to 2001. Information for 2011, and specific data for Kerala's birth and death rates, are not available in the given sources.

• Question (page 163): Why do some Indian states have a higher population growth and some have lower?

    ◦ The source does not explicitly answer this question. It mentions general factors influencing population density like climate, topography, water availability, and soil type, but does not elaborate on reasons for varying population growth rates across Indian states.

• Question (page 164): Observe the table, discuss and make notes on the trends in Male - Female Sex Ratio and Child Sex Ratio in India. Compare the Male - Female ratio and Child Sex Ratio of Kerala.

    ◦ Trends in India (1961-2011):

        ▪ Male-Female Ratio: Showed a general decline from 941 in 1961 to a low of 927 in 1991, before slightly improving to 940 in 2011.

        ▪ Child Sex Ratio (0-6 years): Has shown a consistent and concerning decline, dropping from 960 in 1961 to 914 in 2011.

    ◦ Comparison with Kerala: The provided table does not include data for Kerala's Male-Female ratio or Child Sex Ratio for comparison.

• Question (page 165): What might be the social problems created by the decreasing male-female ratio?

    ◦ The text implies that a decreasing male-female ratio affects the "male-female balance", but does not explicitly list specific social problems resulting from this trend. This is a topic for discussion based on broader implications.

• Question (page 166): What is the male-female ratio in India and Kerala as per the 2011 census?

    ◦ As per the 2011 census, India's Male-Female ratio is 940 females per 1000 males. The male-female ratio for Kerala for 2011 is not provided in the given sources.

• Question (page 168): Prepare a brief note on these and present it in the class. (referring to programmes like Pakal, Swasraya, etc. for elderly)

    ◦ This is a preparation activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 171): Which age group has the largest population? Which age group has the lowest population?

    ◦ Based on the provided table:

        ▪ The age group with the largest population is 15–59 age (63% of the population).

        ▪ The age group with the lowest population is 60 years and above (8% of the population).

• Question (page 172): Conduct a discussion in your class by identifying the population age structure of India and Kerala as per the 2011 census and.

    ◦ This is a discussion activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 176): Discuss and prepare a note on what should be taken care of for.

    ◦ The National Population Policy 2000 aims that by 2045, the population should be streamlined to "strengthen sustainable economic growth, social progress and environmental protection". The discussion should focus on measures and policies needed to achieve these broad goals for population management.

• Learning activity (page 177): Visit the website www.censusindia.gov.in and gather more information related to population.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 177): Collect news about areas in Kerala where human resource decline is happening due to international migration, and prepare a collage.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 177): Visit the website of Ministry of External Affairs and collect the statistics of migration from India and prepare a chart and display it.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 177): Why is there a difference in the female-male ratio in different states? You may discuss and present it in your class?

    ◦ The source provides discussion points for this question: Female foeticide, Preferential attitude towards boys, and Inadequate healthcare. These factors are suggested as reasons for the differences in female-male ratios across states.

• Learning activity (page 178): Collect the details of the above and prepare a brief note. Organise a seminar on population growth in Kerala. The seminar paper should be prepared considering the conceptual areas given below.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

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From "SocialScience_II_9_E_Vol_1.pdf"

Chapter 1: On the Roof of the World

• Question (page 10): Observe the given map (Fig 1.1) and find the location of the Northern mountains. Identify the other mountain ranges that originate from the Pamir Knot and list them.

    ◦ The map (Fig 1.1) shows the Northern mountain ranges extending from the Pamir Knot. Other mountain ranges originating from the Pamir Knot are Kunlun and Tian Shan [190, Fig 1.1].

• Question (page 11): Complete the following table with the help of the given map (Fig 1.2). The index of the map will help you complete this work.

    ◦ Trans Himalayas: Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar.

    ◦ Himalaya: Himadri, Himachal, Shiwaliks.

    ◦ Eastern Hills: Naga Hills, Patkai-Bum, Mizo Hills, Manipur Hills.

• Question (page 12): Observe the map (Fig1.2). Find the location of the Himadri, the Himachal and the Shiwaliks from the map and list out the states in which these ranges are situated.

    ◦ Himadri (Greater Himalayas): Extends across regions that include Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh [193, Fig 1.2].

    ◦ Himachal (Lesser Himalayas): Primarily in Himachal Pradesh, and extends through Uttarakhand and Jammu & Kashmir [193, Fig 1.2].

    ◦ Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas): Forms the borders of the Ganga Plains, extending across Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh [192, Fig 1.2].

• Question (page 13): In which plate boundary was the Himalayas formed?

    ◦ The Himalayas were formed along a Convergent Boundary. This occurred due to the compression and uplifting of the Tethys seabed as the Indian Plate moved northwards and came close to the Eurasian Plate.

• Question (page 14): Mark the location of these divisions and rivers in the outline map of India with the help of the given map (Fig 1.6). (Table for Himalayan Zones)

    ◦ Western Himalayas: Separated by River Indus and River Kali [198, Fig 1.6].

    ◦ Central Himalayas: Separated by River Kali and River Teesta [198, Fig 1.6].

    ◦ Eastern Himalayas: Separated by River Teesta and River Brahmaputra [198, Fig 1.6].

• Question (page 15): Why are the Himalayan rivers water-rich year-round?

    ◦ The Himalayan rivers are water-rich year-round because they are rainfed and snow-fed. The melting snow and glaciers contribute to their luxuriant water flow throughout the year.

• Question (page 15): Mark the important passes of the Himalayas in the outline map of India and include it in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ Important passes mentioned include: Banihal Pass, Baralacha La Pass, Rohtang Pass, Nathula Pass, Bomdila Pass, and Diphu Pass.

• Question (page 17): In which state is Anamudi located?

    ◦ Anamudi, the highest peak in Peninsular India, is located in the Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats, which is in Kerala.

• Question (page 17): How are hot springs formed?

    ◦ Hot springs are formed when rainwater seeps into the earth and becomes groundwater. In areas where mountain building processes (orogenic processes) are active, subsurface rock layers get heated up. These heated rock layers then warm up the groundwater, which subsequently rises to the surface as hot springs.

• Question (page 20): Find the parts of Central Himalayas in India from Fig 1.6 and mark them in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ The parts of Central Himalayas that fall within India are Western Sikkim and the Darjeeling region.

• Question (page 21): Why are there numerous hill stations in the Himalaya Mountains?

    ◦ Numerous hill stations exist in the Himalayas because the geographical conditions are favourable for tourism. The British identified the area's favourable climate in the 19th century, leading to the development of resort towns. These regions offer a cool and pleasant climate.

• Question (page 22): The Himalayan rivers are flood prone even during summer. Why?

    ◦ Himalayan rivers are flood-prone even during summer because they are snow-fed. The melting of snow and glaciers during the summer months significantly contributes to their water volume, increasing the risk of floods.

• Question (page 23): Identify the Himalayan rivers from the map (Fig 1.19) and prepare a Himalayan drainage map for ‛My Own Atlas’.

    ◦ Himalayan rivers shown or mentioned are: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj (tributaries of Indus), Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi (Ganga and its tributaries), and Brahmaputra, Dibang, Lohit, Manas (Brahmaputra and its tributaries).

• Question (page 24): What could be the reason for the occurrence of alluvial soil in the valleys between the mountain ranges?

    ◦ Alluvial soil is formed by the deposition of sediments carried by rivers. In mountainous regions, rivers originating from high altitudes transport debris, including silt, sand, and gravel, downstream. When these rivers reach lower elevations or flatter areas like valleys, their velocity decreases, causing them to deposit these sediments, thus forming alluvial soil. Karewas, a type of glacial sediment, is specifically found in the Kashmir Valley.

• Learning activity (page 27): 1. Prepare an essay on ‘Human life in the Northern Mountains’.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 27): 2. Mark the mountain ranges that are part of the Northern Mountains and incorporate the same in ‘My Own Atlas’.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 27): 3. Prepare a pictorial wall magazine on the occupation of people in the Northern Mountains.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

Chapter 2: In the Expansive Plain

• Question (page 31): Observe the map (Fig 2.4) and list out the rivers that flow through the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.

    ◦ Rivers flowing through the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain include: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj, Luni, Yamuna, Ganga, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son, Betwa, Chambal, Brahmaputra, Teesta, Manas, Lohit, and Dibang.

• Question (page 31): Categorize the rivers flowing through the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plain based on their place of origin as Himalayan rivers or Peninsular rivers, and list them accordingly. Use Fig. 2.1 and 2.4 for this purpose.

    ◦ Himalayan Rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj, Ganga, Yamuna, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Brahmaputra, Teesta, Manas, Lohit, Dibang.

    ◦ Peninsular Rivers: Luni, Betwa, Chambal, Son.

• Question (page 32): List the eastern and western boundaries of the North Indian Plains with the help of a physiographic map of India.

    ◦ The North Indian Plain extends approximately 3200 km from the mouth of River Indus in the west to the mouth of River Ganga in the east, spanning around 2400 km in India. It is bordered by the Shiwalik ranges in the north and the irregular edges of the Peninsular Plateau in the south. The Brahmaputra Plain (easternmost part) stretches to the west of Dubri near the border of Bangladesh. The Rajasthan Plain (westernmost end) is to the west of the Aravali Mountain range.

• Question (page 32): Observe the map provided (Fig 2.4) and list the four regional divisions of the North Indian Plain.

    ◦ The four regional divisions of the North Indian Plain are: Rajasthan Plain, Punjab-Haryana Plain, Ganga Plain, and Brahmaputra Plain [232, 238, Fig 2.4].

• Question (page 33): Locate the Aravali Mountain range with the help of a physiographic map of India.

    ◦ The Aravali Mountain range is located to the west of the Rajasthan Plain.

• Question (page 33): Find out the influence of the Aravali Mountain range in the climate of the Rajasthan Plain.

    ◦ The Aravali Mountain range significantly influences Rajasthan's climate by running parallel to the Arabian branch of the southwest monsoon winds. This orientation means the winds do not shed much moisture over the Rajasthan Plain, resulting in very scanty rainfall in the region.

• Question (page 34): Locate the significant landform to the west of the Punjab-Haryana Plain by referring to an atlas.

    ◦ To the west of the Punjab-Haryana Plain is the Rajasthan Plain, which includes the Thar Desert.

• Question (page 35): Based on geographical features, the Ganga Plain has been further divided into three regions. Observe the given map (Fig 2.6) and identify them.

    ◦ The three regions of the Ganga Plain are: Upper Ganga Plain, Middle Ganga Plain, and Lower Ganga Plain [238, Fig 2.6].

• Question (page 36): With the help of an atlas, identify and locate the Brahmaputra Plain in an outline map of India, and include it in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 36): Observe the map (Fig 2.4) and locate the major tributaries of the River Brahmaputra in the outline map of India.Include it in ‘My Own Atlas’.

    ◦ Major tributaries of the River Brahmaputra mentioned are: Teesta, Manas, Lohit, and Dibang.

• Question (page 38): Prepare a digital album containing the pictures of river meandering and ox-bow lakes in different places of the world.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 40): Which one of the geographical divisions of the North Indian Plain is more suitable for agriculture?

    ◦ The North Indian Plain as a whole (Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain) is highly suitable for agriculture due to its "fertile soil, adequate water supply, favourable climate and flat topography". It is often called the "granary of India". While divisions exist, the text highlights the plain's overall suitability for extensive cultivation.

• Question (page 41): Identify and list out the landforms which are formed due to the depositional process by rivers. Prepare a digital album containing the pictures of such depositional landform features.

    ◦ Landforms formed by river deposition include: alluvial plains, alluvial fans, riverine islands, sandbars, and deltas. Meanders and ox-bow lakes are also prominent features in alluvial plains due to continuous erosion and deposition.

• Question (page 42): The North Indian Plain's distance from the ocean contributes to the excessive heat experienced during the summer in these regions. Why is it so?

    ◦ The distance from the ocean leads to a continental climate. Oceans have a moderating influence on temperature, so regions far inland experience greater temperature extremes, including more excessive heat in summer.

• Question (page 43): The rainfall received in Rajasthan from the southwest monsoon is very scanty. Why?

    ◦ Rainfall in Rajasthan from the southwest monsoon is very scanty because the Arabian branch of the southwest monsoon winds blows parallel to the Aravali Mountains. This orientation prevents the moisture-laden winds from rising and condensing sufficiently to cause significant rainfall over the region.

• Question (page 44): With the help of the provided map (Fig 2.18), identify the movement of winds that blow in the months of October and November. Locate them in an outline map of India and include it in ‘My Own Atlas’.

    ◦ The map (Fig 2.18) illustrates the movement of Northeast Monsoon Winds. These winds blow from a high-pressure area over the North Indian Plain towards the Indian Ocean during October and November (the retreating monsoon season).

• Question (page 47): Identify and list the major natural vegetations in the North Indian Plain by analyzing the map.

    ◦ Based on Fig 2.24 and the text, the major natural vegetation types in the North Indian Plain are: Tropical Deciduous Forests (including dry and moist deciduous forests), Tropical Thorn Forests, and Swamp Forests (e.g., mangroves in the Sundarbans delta).

• Question (page 47): Locate the Sundarbans delta by referring to an atlas.

    ◦ The Sundarbans delta is located in the marshy and expansive deltaic region of the Ganga Plain in West Bengal.

• Question (page 47): With the help of information technology, prepare a note with pictures on the characteristic features of mangrove forests.

    ◦ This is a preparation activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 48): Write the characteristic features of these two types of soil by referring to the previous topics. (Khadar and Bhangar)

    ◦ Bhangar: These are the older alluvial deposits found in the alluvial plain zone.

    ◦ Khadar: These are the newer alluvial deposits found in the alluvial plain zone.

• Question (page 49): Identify the distribution of different types of soils in the North Indian Plain by analyzing the provided map (Fig 2.25) and list them.

    ◦ Based on Fig 2.25 and the text, the main soil types are:

        ▪ Alluvial soil: Widespread across the plain.

        ▪ Red soil: Found in the southern part of the Middle Ganga Plain.

        ▪ Saline soil: Found in the Sundarbans delta region.

        ▪ Peat soil: Found along the coastal regions of West Bengal.

        ▪ Arid soil: Extensively found in the western parts, including Rajasthan.

• Question (page 52): Prepare a note on it by adding additional informations with the help of information technology. (Cropping seasons)

    ◦ Kharif Season: (From June to September) – Associated with the southwest monsoon season. Major crops are Tropical Crops such as Rice, Cotton, Jute, Bajra, and Tur.

    ◦ Rabi Season: (From October to March) – Begins with the onset of the cold season. Major crops are Temperate - Subtropical Crops such as Wheat, Gram, Mustard, and Barley.

    ◦ Zaid Season: (From April to June) – A short duration cropping season that starts after the cultivation of Rabi crops. Major crops include Vegetables, Fruits, and Fodder.

• Learning activity (page 52): 1. Project – 'The significant role played by The North Indian Plain in shaping human life in India'.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 52): 2. Conduct a seminar on the topic ‘Climate and Crops ‘.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 52): 3. How is the formation of the North Indian Plains associated with the formation of the Himalayas? Elucidate.

    ◦ The formation of the North Indian Plains is directly linked to the formation of the Himalayas. The Himalayan uplift led to the creation of a vast depression to the south of the newly formed mountain range. Subsequently, sediments carried by rivers originating from both the Himalayas and the Peninsular India were continuously deposited in this expansive depression over millions of years, leading to the formation of this fertile alluvial plain.

• Learning activity (page 52): 4. Draw the outline map of India and locate the divisions of the North Indian Plain. Exhibit it in your classroom.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 52): 5. Draw the outline map of India and locate the major physiographic divisions using different colours to distinguish them. Also, draw the rivers flowing through the North Indian Plain and display the map in your classroom.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

Chapter 3: Plateau where the Earth’s History Slumbers

• Question (page 55): With the help of the map given (Fig 3.1), identify the states which wholly or partly belong to the Peninsular Plateau. You can also make use of the political map of India.

    ◦ States wholly or partly belonging to the Peninsular Plateau include: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal (partly), Gujarat (partly), and Kerala (partly) [269, 270, Fig 3.1].

• Question (page 57): In which state is Anamudi located?

    ◦ Anamudi is located in Kerala.

• Question (page 57): Analyse the impact of Sahyadris on the life of the people of Kerala and prepare a note.

    ◦ The Sahyadris (Western Ghats) have a "decisive influence on our climate, biodiversity and life of people" in Kerala. This is a discussion/preparation activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 57): Find the exact location of Anamudi and include it in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ Anamudi is located in Anamalai of the Western Ghats.

• Question (page 57): Find out the major peaks in the Western Ghats.

    ◦ The major peaks mentioned in the Western Ghats are Anamudi (2695 metres) and Dodabetta (2637 metres).

• Question (page 58): Which are the peninsular rivers cutting across the Eastern Ghats?

    ◦ The east-flowing peninsular rivers that cut across the Eastern Ghats are the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.

• Question (page 58): Locate the major mountain ranges of the Eastern Ghats and include them in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ Major mountain ranges of the Eastern Ghats include: Javadi Hills, Palkondamalai, Nallamalai, and Mahendragiri.

• Question (page 59): Locate the Nilgiri Hills and incorporate in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ The Nilgiri Hills are located at the meeting place of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala, where the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats join.

• Question (page 59): Locate Mount Abu and incorporate it in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ Mount Abu is located in the Aravali ranges.

• Question (page 59): Which is the tributary flowing directly to River Ganga from the Central Highlands? Find out with the help of a map.

    ◦ The Son River is mentioned as a peninsular tributary of River Ganga originating from the Central Highlands.

• Question (page 59): Find out the tributaries of River Yamuna originating from the Central Highlands.

    ◦ The Chambal and Betwa rivers are mentioned as peninsular tributaries that join River Yamuna or directly flow to River Ganga.

• Question (page 61): Try to understand the daily temperature characteristics of places like Hyderabad, Nagpur, Bengaluru, Mysuru etc.

    ◦ For places in the interior of the Peninsular Plateau, like Hyderabad, Nagpur, Bengaluru, and Mysuru, the text indicates that the diurnal range of temperature is very high. This means there is a considerable fall in night temperature compared to the maximum daytime temperature.

• Question (page 62): Cool climate prevails over the places such as Ooty, Kodaikanal and Wayanad in spite of being located at the tropical region. Why?

    ◦ Cool climate prevails in these places despite their tropical location because they are situated at higher elevations. Temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude, leading to cooler conditions.

• Question (page 62): What is the reason for the very scanty of rainfall in the interior parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka during southwest monsoon?

    ◦ These interior parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka lie in the rain shadow region of the Western Ghats. During the southwest monsoon, moisture-laden winds cause heavy rainfall on the western (windward) slopes of the Western Ghats. However, the winds descend as dry air on the eastern (leeward) slopes, resulting in very little rainfall (less than 50cm) in these plateau regions.

• Question (page 63): Identify the major east-flowing peninsular rivers and incorporate in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ The major east-flowing peninsular rivers are: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.

• Question (page 65): Find out the tributaries of River Kaveri originating from Kerala.

    ◦ The tributaries of River Kaveri mentioned are Kabani, Bhavani, and Amaravati. While it lists them as Kaveri's tributaries, it doesn't explicitly state which originate from Kerala, though Kabani is generally known to.

• Question (page 66): Find out the major rivers that originate from the Western Ghats and flow to Arabian Sea through Kerala.

    ◦ The source states that "Most of the peninsular rivers, except Narmada and Tapti, originate from the western slopes of the Western Ghats and swiftly flow into the Arabian Sea through the western coastal plains". However, it does not list the specific names of rivers flowing through Kerala that originate from the Western Ghats.

• Question (page 67): Peninsular rivers are, in general, not navigable. Why?

    ◦ Peninsular rivers are generally not navigable because they are more seasonal in their flow, with water levels significantly decreasing during summer and overflowing during monsoons. Their comparatively shallow river valleys and courses across plateaus with varying gradients also limit navigability.

• Question (page 67): Collect more information about multipurpose river valley projects. Find out such river valley projects in Peninsular India.

    ◦ Multipurpose River Valley projects mentioned in Peninsular India are:

        ▪ Hirakud on the Mahanadi River in Odisha.

        ▪ Thungabhadra on the Thungabhadra River (tributary of Krishna) in Karnataka.

        ▪ Sardar Sarovar on the Narmada River in Gujarat.

        ▪ Krishna Raja Sagar on the Kaveri River in Karnataka.

        ▪ Nizam Sagar on the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.

• Question (page 69): What are the other names by which these soils are known? (Black soil)

    ◦ Black soil is also known as Regur soil and black cotton soil.

• Question (page 72): Which is the largest sugarcane producing state in India?

    ◦ The source states that "the Northern Plains dominates in the area of cultivation" for sugarcane, but it does not explicitly name the largest sugarcane producing state in India.

• Question (page 73): Find out the location of major mining regions from the given map (Fig. 3.20). List out the major minerals found in each state.

    ◦ The source describes mineral zones and states, but does not label specific states on Map 3.20 for a direct find. However, from the text:

        ▪ Northeastern Plateau Region (Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha): Coal, iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, copper.

        ▪ Central Region (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra): Manganese, bauxite, limestone, marble, coal, mica, iron ore, graphite.

        ▪ Southern Region (Karnataka Plateau and adjoining Tamil Nadu): Iron ore, bauxite, lignite.

        ▪ Southwestern Region (western Karnataka and Goa): Iron ore, clay.

        ▪ Northwestern Region (Aravali range in Rajasthan and adjoining Gujarat): Copper, lead, zinc, uranium, mica.

• Learning activity (page 74): Prepare a map showing the distribution of major minerals and incorporate in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 76): Identify the major metropolitan cities in the Peninsular Plateau from the given map ( Fig. 3.21).

    ◦ Fig. 3.21 shows symbols for "Major Cities" but does not explicitly label their names. This is a learning activity requiring external research or cross-referencing with a political map.

• Learning activity (page 76): Mark and label the major cities in the map and incorporate in My Own Atlas.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 76): 1. Mark and label the major mountain ranges, hills and plateau regions of the Peninsular Plateau in a map and prepare a chart.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 76): 2. Prepare a map showing the major rivers of the Peninsular Plateau and display it in the class room.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 76): 3. Mark the major mining regions of the Peninsular Plateau in a map with appropriate symbols and display in the Social Science Lab.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 76): 4. Find out the major industries in the Peninsular Plateau and analyse the role of mineral resources and agriculture in their distribution pattern.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

Chapter 4: Human Resources for National Development

• Question (page 79): Can you find out the factors used in paddy cultivation?

    ◦ The factors used in paddy cultivation include: Farmfield (Land), Seed (Capital/Land produce), Machines and equipments (Capital), Farmers (Labour), and the local ‘Padashekhara Samrakshana Koottayma’ (Entrepreneurship/Organisation).

• Question (page 80): What are the different purposes for which the paddy cultivated in the farmlands can be used by the producers?

    ◦ The paddy cultivated can be used by producers "For food" and "For sale".

• Question (page 80): Write down the disadvantages of the Barter System.

    ◦ A disadvantage of the Barter System is the "Difficulty in determining the price of goods". (The text provides a blank list indicating more, but only one is explicitly mentioned).

• Question (page 80): Can goods be exchanged for goods in all cases?

    ◦ No, goods could not be exchanged for goods in all cases. The text states that the Barter System "had many drawbacks" and "limitations" that led to the evolution of money as a common medium of exchange.

• Question (page 82): Based on Fig 4.2, discuss the topic ' Evolution of Money' and prepare a note by adding more ideas.

    ◦ The evolution of money began with the use of various products as money, such as animal skins, agricultural products, and cattle. As metals became available, gold and other metals, and later metal coins, were used. For convenience, trade shifted to paper money. With technological advancements and the expansion of markets, money transformed into card (plastic) money and electronic money. This evolution allowed money to become the "basic unit of all economic activities" and enabled the pricing and payment of factors of production in cash.

• Question (page 82): Observe and find out from figures 4.3(a) and 4.3(b), who are the most productive producers and what factors helped them to do so. Write it down.

    ◦ Figure 4.3(b) depicts modern, technologically advanced paddy cultivation, implying that these are the most productive producers [319, Fig 4.3(b)]. The factors helping them include the use of modern technology, which increases efficiency and productivity. Human resources can be made more efficient through "higher education, proper training and healthcare".

• Question (page 84): Observe the Population Pyramid of India (Fig 4.4) and try to answer the following questions.

    ◦ In which age group do we have the most number of people? The base of the pyramid is widest, indicating the younger age groups (e.g., 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 25-29) have the most number of people [Fig 4.4].

    ◦ Which age group do you fall into? This question requires personal input and cannot be answered by the source.

    ◦ Which age group has the least number of people? The age group 80+ has the least number of people [Fig 4.4].

    ◦ Find the ratio of men and women (sex ratio) in each age group. The pyramid shows the percentage of population for both males and females in each age group. Generally, for most working-age groups, the percentages for males and females are relatively close, indicating a somewhat balanced ratio, with slight variations [Fig 4.4].

• Question (page 85): What does positively influence the income and the growth of a country’s economy? Its population or labour force? Discuss and prepare a note.

    ◦ It is the labour force that positively influences the income and growth of a country’s economy, rather than just the overall population size. The labour force consists of people aged 15 years and above who are willing and able to work. When the number of people in this productive age group is high, and their productivity (quality of human resources) is high through education, training, and healthcare, it significantly boosts economic income and growth.

• Question (page 85): Which age group is likely to have more willingness and ability to work? Why?

    ◦ The age group of 15 years and above (specifically the working age population, typically 15-64 years) is likely to have more willingness and ability to work. This is because this segment of the population is considered the labour force and is generally in their prime physical and mental capacity for productive activities, distinct from the dependent categories of children and the elderly.

• Question (page 85): Write down the forms of human capital you are familiar with.

    ◦ Forms of human capital mentioned include: Farmers, Teachers, Scientists. Others implied by the text as contributors to human capital or the knowledge economy are: Scientists, researchers, policymakers, experts in shares and taxation, and software developers.

• Question (page 86): How can we strengthen the human capital?

    ◦ Human capital can be strengthened by:

        ▪ Providing better health facilities.

        ▪ Enabling large-scale investment in education.

        ▪ Emphasising skill development.

        ▪ Creating an employee-friendly work environment.

• Question (page 88): Observe the picture below and understand how education leads to the progress of the country. Discuss and note down the ideas.

    ◦ The diagram (Fig 4.6) illustrates that Education leads to an Increase in Ability, which fosters Technological Knowledge and Skill Development. These, in turn, result in Better Job opportunities and Better Income, ultimately contributing to a Better Quality of Life and driving National Development. Education also enables people to use modern technology effectively and promotes a society with high values.

• Question (page 88): How does declining health affect individual and national development?

    ◦ Declining health negatively affects both individual and national development by:

        ▪ Decreasing productivity.

        ▪ Causing individuals to refrain from work.

        ▪ Slowing down production.

        ▪ People with poor health cannot contribute effectively to the country's progress.

• Question (page 89): What are the healthcare measures to be taken to increase the productivity of human resources? Give your suggestions.

    ◦ Healthcare measures to increase human resource productivity include:

        ▪ Strengthening immune systems.

        ▪ Giving importance to hygiene.

        ▪ Ensuring adequate availability of nutritious foods.

        ▪ Providing better medical facilities.

        ▪ Ensuring recreation and relaxation.

        ▪ Implementing preventive medicine, immunization, curative medicine, promoting health literacy, and ensuring the supply of clean drinking water and sanitation measures.

• Question (page 90): Find out the various healthcare activities in your locality and prepare a note.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 91): Observe the picture given below (Fig. 4.7) and discuss how the causes and consequences of poverty are related.

    ◦ The diagram (Fig 4.7) illustrates a vicious circle of poverty. Poverty leads to low income and low purchasing power. This causes scarcity of food, malnutrition, lack of access to education, and chronic illness. These conditions, in turn, result in low productivity and lack of capacity to work. This leads to a high infant mortality rate, low life expectancy, and an increasing number of dependents, which then reinforces low income, completing the cycle.

• Question (page 92): Collect information and make notes on various poverty alleviation programmes and policies implemented by Central and State Governments.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Question (page 92): How does unemployment affect our lives?

    ◦ Unemployment affects lives by preventing the "maximum utilisation of human resources". When a healthy and capable person willing to work cannot find employment commensurate with their education and skills, it hinders human capital formation. This implies negative impacts on individual income, standard of living, and overall economic development, though not explicitly detailed as personal "effects."

• Question (page 93): Collect information related to unemployment from a few house-holds in your neighbourhood. What type of unemployment is most prevalent? Discuss and write down the causes and solutions.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 93): 1. ‘A change in the productivity of the factors of production can increase the total output’. Based on this statement, find out various ways to make factors of production like land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship more productive.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 94): 2. Collect information on the educational policies implemented by India since Independence to modernise the education sector of the country. Prepare and present a seminar paper on it.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 94): 3. Collect information about the various schemes initiated by the state government to improve general education.

    ◦ This is a learning activity and not a question with a direct answer in the text.

• Learning activity (page 94): 4. Collect information and prepare a note on the various schemes implemented by the central and state governments in the health sector.