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Stone Age
A period where humans primarily used stone tools.
Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age):
- Tools: Characterised by rough (unpolished) stone tools. Towards the end, tools made of bones were also used. Tools evolved from mere utilisation of available stones to fashioning and standardisation for specific purposes.
- Life: Primitive humans lived in caves and open spaces. Their main means of livelihood were hunting and gathering. They lived a nomadic life and food was not stored.
- Society: Basic units of society were bands (small groups of fewer than a hundred members bound by blood relation). Men were engaged in hunting, and women in gathering.
- Art & Communication: Artistic creations like cave paintings and sculptures were employed during the late Palaeolithic period, showing intellectual and technical skill. Colours were made from plants, bark, fruits, and red stone powder.
Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age):
- Transition: This was a transitional stage from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic Age.
- Tools: Marked by the use of microliths (very small tools), smaller than Palaeolithic tools.
- Life: Indications of domestication of animals emerge. Hunting and gathering remained key means of livelihood.
- Communication: Development of human communication is mainly seen during this age in India. Works of art in cave centres like Bhimbetka, Lakhajoar, and Kathotia in Madhya Pradesh provide insights into life during this period.
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age):
- Radical Change: Gordon Childe's Man Makes Himself highlights two important changes in this period that transformed human life.
- Agriculture & Domestication: Humans began agriculture and domestication of animals, ensuring steady availability of food.
- Tools: Use of polished tools which helped in cultivating land, tilling soil, and cutting trees.
- Settlements: Led to permanent settlements and agrarian villages.
- Development: Introduction of pottery and use of clay bricks enabled grain storage. Surplus production allowed specialisation, with some engaging in other occupations like pottery and weaving, leading to new social formations. This era laid the foundation for human progress.
- Geographical Significance: The 'Fertile Crescent' region saw the beginning of agriculture.
Metal Age
Followed the Stone Age as humans began using metals for tools and weapons.
Copper & Bronze Age (Chalcolithic Age):
- Chalcolithic: Period when copper tools were used along with stone tools.
- Bronze: Copper was the first metal used, then bronze (alloy of copper and tin) became prominent due to its strength and durability.
- Urbanisation: The Bronze Age saw the beginning of urban life. Cities, public buildings, drainage systems, and various crafts characterised this period.
- Harappan Civilisation: An example of a Bronze Age urban civilisation in India, with cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Lothal.
Iron Age (Vedic Age):
- Arrival of Aryans: After the decline of the Harappan civilisation, Aryans (believed to be from Central Asia, speaking Indo-European languages) entered the Sapta Sindhu region.
- Vedas: Information about this age comes from the Vedas, hence it's called the Vedic Age (1500 BCE - 600 BCE).
Early Vedic Period:
- Economy: Pastoral economy.
- Life: Semi-nomadic life in the Sapta Sindhu region.
- Society: Women had a comparatively higher social status. Rituals were simple and performed by the head of the family. Natural forces were worshipped.
Later Vedic Period:
- Expansion: Extended up to the Gangetic plain, with agriculture gaining importance.
- Life: Transition to a settled life.
- Society: The social status of women declined. Use of iron became common. The Varna system became stronger and more complicated. Rituals became complex and expensive, privileges of a particular section emerged, and new deities were worshipped. Various crafts began.
Varna System:
A social stratification system with four varnas: Brahmins (priestly rites), Kshatriyas (governance, protection), Vaishyas (agriculture, trade), and Sudras (served the other three).
Cause & Effect (Chapter 1 Summary): The evolution of tools from rough stone to polished stone and then metals demonstrates human progress driven by innovation. This progress enabled shifts from nomadic hunting-gathering to settled agriculture, leading to surplus production, specialisation, and the formation of early social structures and urbanisation.
Ideological Revolution (6th Century BCE)
A remarkable period globally, with new ideas spread by figures like Vardhamana Mahavira, Gautama Buddha (India), Zarathushtra (Iran), Confucius (China), and Heraclitus (Greece).
Causes:
- Widespread use of iron tools: Led to increased agricultural production.
- Growth of trade and cities: Resulted from agricultural surplus.
- Conflict with Vedic Practices: The emerging socio-economic system, based on agriculture and cattle, was not in harmony with Vedic practices that prioritised rituals and cattle sacrifice, which adversely affected agriculture and forced people to think against these rituals.
- Rise of New Classes: Vaishyas (with material progress from trade) desired higher social status, and rich Gahapathis (engaged in trade, owned land) gained status outside the Varna system. These groups supported the new ideological concepts like Jainism and Buddhism.
Jainism
- Founder: Propagated by Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th (and last) Tirthankara. He added his principles to those of Parswanatha (23rd Tirthankara). Born in Kundagrama near Vaishali, Bihar. Attained Nirvana at Pava.
- Doctrines:
- Denial of Vedas.
- Triratnas (Three Jewels): Right Belief, Right Knowledge, and Right Action for attaining 'Moksha' (salvation).
- Non-violence (Ahimsa): Emphasised that everything has life and to not harm any living being. This principle significantly influenced Indian society.
- Karma: Birth and rebirth are determined by Karma.
- Monastic Discipline: Monks and nuns were advised to not lie, not own property, and practice celibacy.
- Sects: Later split into Swetambaras and Digambaras.
Buddhism
- Founder: Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha), born in Lumbini, Nepal. Attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Gave first sermon at Sarnath. Attained Nirvana at Kushinara.
- Principles:
- Four Noble Truths: Life is full of sorrows; Desire is the cause of sorrow; If desire is destroyed, sorrow will disappear; To achieve this, the Eight Fold Path should be followed.
- Eight Fold Path (Ashtangamarga): Right vision, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, awareness, meditation. Also known as the Middle Path, rejecting severe asceticism and luxurious living.
- Ahimsa: Suitable for the new agricultural conditions in the Ganga basin as cattle were needed for farming and transportation.
- Equality: Opposed the Varna system and caste system.
- Language: Spread ideas in Pali, the language of common people.
- Sanghas: Monastic orders formed to propagate Buddhism, open to all regardless of caste and gender (Bhikshus for men, Bhikshunis for women). Decisions were made through discussions and majority opinion. Helped inculcate democracy and values in society.
- Stupas: Semi-circular buildings built on sites where Buddha's remains or objects were buried (e.g., Sanchi, Sarnath).
- Impact: Spread to Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Burma, Myanmar, Tibet, Afghanistan, and Southeast Asia. Later split into Mahayana (worshipped Buddha as God) and Hinayana.
Materialism
- Promulgator: Ajita Kesakambalin, a contemporary of Buddha.
- Ideas: Opined that all religious practices are meaningless, and there is neither Ihaloka (this world) nor Paraloka (other world). Believed everything is made of four elements that dissolve upon death.
Early States: Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
- Janapadas: 'Janapada' means a place where people settled. Formed as tribal communities ('Jana') settled permanently due to widespread agriculture.
- Growth: Agricultural surplus led to growth of trade and towns. Towns became manufacturing centers. Regulations became necessary for diverse economic activities, leading to the disappearance of tribal governance.
- State Formation: The close link with agriculture and land gave rise to the idea of 'one's own land', making state formation a reality.
- Mahajanapadas: Buddhist work Anguttaranikaya mentions 16 political entities that formed this way. Historians refer to these changes as 'second urbanisation'.
- Administrative System: Kingship and a standing army developed. Taxes included 'Bali' and 'Bhaga' (grains, cattle, forest produce). Artisans also paid taxes. Kings were assisted by Senani, Purohita, and Gramani. Mahajanapadas had forts and capital cities.
The Rise of Magadha
One of the 16 Mahajanapadas, Magadha emerged as the ultimate winner due to constant wars for dominance.
Causes of Growth:
- Geographical Advantages: Fertile region with good rainfall. Large deposits of iron ore (for tools and weapons). Abundance of elephants in forests (important in warfare).
- Transportation: Ganga and its tributaries provided easy transportation of goods.
- Strong Rulers: Ruled by powerful kings like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru (Haryanka Dynasty).
From Magadha to the Maurya Kingdom
- Foundation: Chandragupta Maurya defeated Dhanananda (last Nanda ruler) in 321 BCE and founded the Maurya Kingdom.
- Sources: History of Maurya kingdom known from Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Emperor Asoka’s inscriptions, and contemporary coins. Megasthenes' description of Pataliputra (capital).
- Arthashastra & Saptanga Theory: Kautilya's Arthashastra details the seven components (Saptangas) on which a kingdom rests.
- King Asoka: The most important Maurya ruler. After conquering Kalinga, he gave up war.
- Asoka Dhamma (Dharma): Ideas propagated by Asoka for peace and coexistence. Main ideas: tolerance to other religions, respect for elders and teachers, kindness to slaves and the sick. Romila Thapar suggests it was a mechanism for unity in a vast, diverse country.
- Mauryan Administration: Vast kingdom divided into provinces with governors. Pataliputra under direct Emperor control. Military administration by a 30-member committee (cavalry, chariots, elephants, navy). Asokan inscriptions (Brahmi, Kharoshti, Aramaic scripts) are key sources, referring to the king as 'Devanampiya'.
Growth of Trade (Chapter 2)
- Coins: Punch Marked Coins (silver and copper) indicate use of currency for trade.
- Commodities: Grains, textiles, metals were chief items.
- Traders: Setthis and Satthavahakar.
- Transportation: Goods transported by land, sea, and rivers.
State Formation in Greece
- City-States: Villages united for security/governance formed city-states (city + surrounding agricultural villages). Hills/mountains provided natural boundaries. Examples: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes.
- Athenian Democracy: Resembled modern democracy 2500 years ago. All males over 30 (except slaves) were citizens and took decisions. Women, artisans, foreigners were not citizens.
- Prosperity: Athens was a prosperous trade center in the Mediterranean. Skilled in shipbuilding and seafaring. Attracted thinkers like Sophists and Herodotus (father of history).
Cause & Effect (Chapter 2 Summary): The emergence of new material conditions (iron use, agriculture, trade) in the Ganga basin caused the ideological revolution (Jainism, Buddhism), which in turn effected changes in social structure and the rise of states. Geographical features (fertility, resources, transport) caused Magadha's dominance, leading to the vast Maurya kingdom.
Land Grants
- The practice of transferring land from kings to individuals or institutions, often Brahmins, along with special rights.
- Origin & Spread: Mentioned in Buddhist works, but became widespread during the post-Mauryan period. The Satavahanas (Deccan region) started this practice, and it became widespread under the Guptas.
- Evolution of Land Grants:
- Satavahanas: Initially, only right to resources of the land was given.
- Guptas: Grants became more extensive. Along with resources, rights over the people living there were transferred. The right to collect taxes and administer justice was also transferred. Recipients gained the right to re-grant the land. Land grants also served as remuneration for services instead of cash.
Indian Feudalism
- Formation: Widespread land grants led to the emergence of a powerful landlord section in society, particularly Brahmins who received most grants.
- Dependence: Those who worked on the land (farmers, agricultural labourers, slaves) became rightless dependents of landlords. They were bound to the land, lived and died on it, and laboured for their masters.
- Exploitation: In addition to taxes, lower strata had to provide free services to the upper stratum. This system is termed 'Indian Feudalism'.
Economic Changes & Agriculture
- Agricultural Improvement: Despite feudalism, there was a remarkable improvement in agriculture.
- Expansion: Even uncultivated areas were made suitable. Brahmins' knowledge of agricultural technology and climate helped expansion.
- Irrigation Facilities (Gupta Period): Canals, water raised from wells, rainwater collection, dams (Skandagupta rebuilt Sudarsana Lake), and Ghatiyantra (Araghata) (a wheel with pots for lifting water).
Crafts and Trade
- Growth: Expansion of agriculture led to the growth of non-agricultural activities.
- Crafts: Evidenced by artefacts like gold/silver/precious stone jewellery, glassware, silk/cotton textiles, and ivory sculptures.
- Guilds (Srenis): Craftsmen and traders formed associations called 'Guilds' or 'Srenis' to collect raw materials, control production, and market goods.
- Trade Items: Skilled craftsmen's products, especially various types of textiles (muslin, calico, linen), were chief trade items.
- Trade Routes: New routes developed. External trade links with West Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and Rome.
- Traders: Wealthy merchants known as 'Nagarasreshtin' and 'Sarthvaha'.
- Trade Centres: Kanauj, Shravasti, Kausambi, Ujjayini, Mathura.
Decline of Trade and Urban Decay
- Causes: Decline of foreign trade (e.g., collapse of Roman Empire by 6th CE) and learning of silk-making technique by Westerners from Chinese.
- Effects: Adversely affected internal trade and movement of craftsmen. Led to slump in arts/crafts, ruralisation, and decay of major towns. Many formerly large cities (e.g., Kausambi, Takshasila) were described as villages by 7th-century traveller Hiuen Tsang.
Social Life (Chapter 3)
- Caste System Complexity: Entry of new occupational groups, peoples from outside the subcontinent, forest dwellers (Nishadas), and children from inter-caste marriages led to the formation of numerous new 'jatis' or 'upajatis', making the caste system more complex.
- Varna Status: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas retained their privileges. Sudras were described as peasants.
- Untouchability: 'Antyajas' were outside the Chaturvarnya system and considered 'untouchables' (e.g., Chandalas, Charmakarar). Fa Hien describes Chandalas as having to make sounds to warn higher castes of their approach.
- Position of Women: Generally low status. Expected to be submissive. Even upper-class women did not enjoy high consideration. No evidence of land grants received by Brahmin women.
- Marriages: Anuloma (upper caste groom, lower caste bride) and Pratiloma (upper caste bride, lower caste groom) marriages existed.
Administration (Gupta Period)
- King's Powers: Kings had extensive powers and were considered equal to God (e.g., Samudragupta in Prayaga Prasati). Responsibilities included protecting subjects, the weak, and administering justice.
- Samantha System: Gupta kings allowed conquered rulers to continue as 'Samanthas' with autonomy in their areas. Guptas did not interfere in their administration or succession.
- Village Administration: Directly ruled areas had an elaborate administrative system. Village head: 'Gramapati' or 'Gramadhyaksha'. Disputes settled by 'Gramavriddhar' (elders). Communities of carpenters, weavers, herdsmen were represented.
Art and Literature (Gupta Period)
- Architecture: Construction of temples using stone and bricks, with notable sculptures. Examples: Dasavatara Temple, Vishnu Temple of Tigawa.
- Prasastis: Stone inscriptions proclaiming a ruler's achievements and praise. Examples: Prayaga Prasati by Harishena for Samudragupta's conquests.
- Sanskrit Literature: Received royal patronage; Sanskrit was the language of administration. Great epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and most Puranas took their present textual form during this period.
- Dramas, Poems, Grammar, Lexicon: Notable works include Abhijnana Sakunthala (Kalidasa), Mriccha Katika (Sudraka), Thrikandi (Bhartrhari), Amarakosam (Amarasimha).
- Paintings: World-famous paintings in Ajanta Caves depict royal life, court, celestial beings, and epic scenes, using natural colours.
- Philosophical Thought: Various schools of thought formulated through debates.
- Samkhya (Kapila), Yoga (not explicitly named exponent, but generally Patanjali), Nyaya (Gauthama), Vaisheshika (Kanada), Vedanta (Badarayana), Mimamsa (Jaimini).
- Metallurgy: Advanced skills evident in the Iron Pillar at Mehrauli (4th CE), which shows no sign of rusting after centuries.
- Science: Books on astronomy, mathematics, and medical science. Notable works: Brihatsamhita (Varahamihira), Aryabhatiya (Arya Bhata), Amarakosa (Amarasimha).
South India (Post-Gupta Period)
- Land Grants Spread: Practice spread by 6th CE due to Brahmin migration. Dynasties like Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas granted lands to Brahmins and temples.
- Economic Impact: Brahmins gained high status. Land grants led to agricultural development (Brahmins' knowledge of tech/climate, kings/local bodies built reservoirs/irrigation). Surplus agriculture led to growth of internal trade.
- Trade: Busy ports like Mahabalipuram, Korkai, Kaveripattinam, Muziris, Tondi facilitated trade with Chinese and Arab merchants. Merchant guilds known as 'Vanika' communities.
- Social & Cultural Life:
- Brahmins were wealthy and dominant. Low castes suffered.
- Village courts settled disputes through collective opinion; kings did not interfere in customs, worship, or caste rules.
- Rise of the Bhakti movement.
- Art & Architecture: Temples were chief works of art. Dravidian style of temple construction evolved through three phases: Rock-cut, Monolithic chariot, and Structural temples. Features included Sreekovil (Garbhagriha), Vimana, Sikhara, and gigantic Gopuras. Examples: Kanchipuram, Mahabalipuram (Shore Temple, Ratha Temples), Madurai (Meenakshi Temple), Srirangam.
Post-Independence Context
India's independence in 1947 brought the responsibility of establishing a democratic government and welfare system to address historical issues like discrimination, social evils, and human rights violations under British rule.
Objective Resolution (December 13, 1946)
Presented by Jawaharlal Nehru to the Constituent Assembly.
- Core Ideals: India as an independent sovereign republic, a union of autonomous territories (former British India, Indian states, others willing to join). All power to emanate from the people. Ensured social, economic, and political justice; equality of status, opportunity, and before the law; and fundamental freedoms (speech, expression, belief, worship, profession, association, assembly).
Indian Constitution
- Drafting: Prepared by the Drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly (formed Dec 6, 1946). Took 2 years, 11 months, 17 days.
- Adoption & Enforcement: Adopted on Nov 26, 1949 (395 articles, 8 schedules, 22 parts). Came into force on Jan 26, 1950. A "living document" that incorporates changes over time.
- Features:
- Largest Written Constitution: Comprehensive and extensive.
- Parliamentary Democracy: Executive members drawn from and controlled by the legislature.
- Sovereignty to People.
- Rigid and Flexible Structure: Provisions can be amended through special procedures (rigid) or ordinary legislative manners (flexible).
- Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties.
- Directive Principles of State Policy: Directions for socio-economic development.
- Bicameral Legislature: Lower House (Lok Sabha) representing people, Upper House (Rajya Sabha) representing states for deliberation.
- Federalism with a Strong Central Government: Division of powers between Centre and States, but Centre retains special upper hand.
- Independent and Impartial Judiciary.
- Independent Constitutional Institutions: To broaden democratic system.
Indian Federalism
- Definition: Power divided between two levels of government (Centre and States) based on the Constitution.
- Rationale for Adoption: To strengthen democracy through power sharing, maintain diversity and unity, effectively counter separatist tendencies by ensuring regional representation, and achieve economic progress and welfare.
- Features: Written and Rigid Constitution, Division of Powers, Independent Judiciary. India is a "Union of States" (Article I) but not explicitly called federal. Quasi-federal system. Common Constitution for Centre/States, single citizenship. Centre has upper hand in amending Constitution and over key subjects. Bicameral legislature.
- Division of Powers (Seventh Schedule):
- Union List: Exclusive law-making powers for the Union Government (e.g., Foreign Affairs, Defence, Railways, Banking, Citizenship). (Initially 97 subjects).
- State List: Legislative powers for State governments in normal circumstances (e.g., Agriculture, Jails, Police, Local Government). (Initially 66 subjects).
- Concurrent List: Both Central and State Governments have legislative powers (e.g., Education, Forestry, Trade Unions, Marriage, Birth and Death Registration). (Initially 47 subjects).
- Residuary Powers: Subjects not in any list, vested in the Central Government (e.g., Cyber Laws).
Separation of Powers
- Purpose: To prevent concentration of power and safeguard democracy from dictatorship. Ensures checks and balances among the three branches.
- Branches of Government:
- Legislature (Parliament):
- Role: Primary responsibility is to make laws. Responds to public opinion and aspirations.
- Structure: Bicameral (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) to represent diversity.
- Lok Sabha (Lower House): Directly elected by people (members >25 years). Term 5 years. Maximum strength 550 (current 543). Government formation depends on its majority. Chaired by the Speaker. Has more powers than Rajya Sabha; Money Bills originate here.
- Rajya Sabha (Upper House): Members elected by State Legislative Assemblies (members >30 years). A permanent house, 1/3 members retire every two years, term 6 years. Chaired by the Vice President. Maximum strength 250 (238 elected, 12 nominated). Proceedings to remove Vice President begin here. Can mandate Parliament to create new All India Services.
- Legislative Process: Bill (Government Bill, Private Member Bill, Money Bill, Non-Money Bill) passes through First Reading, Second Reading, Third Reading in both houses, then needs Presidential assent to become law.
- Executive:
- Role: Responsible for implementing and administering laws and policies.
- Components: President, Vice President, and the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister.
- Types: Nominal Executive (President) and Real Executive (Prime Minister and Council of Ministers). Permanent Executive (Bureaucracy) handles day-to-day operations and assists the political executive.
- President: Executive head of the State. Elected by an Electoral College (elected members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies) for a 5-year term. Powers include summoning Parliament, dissolving Lok Sabha, appointing PM/Ministers/Judges/Governors, declaring emergency, Commander-in-Chief. Acts in accordance with Council of Ministers' advice, but has discretionary powers too.
- Prime Minister: Administrative head and leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha. Forms and manages the Council of Ministers. Links President, Cabinet, and Parliament.
- Council of Ministers: Headed by PM, assists the President. Functions: formulate national/foreign policies, steer legislative process, administer country, draft bills, coordinate departments.
- Judiciary:
- Role: Ensures legislative and executive functions are in accordance with the Constitution. Protects citizens' rights and constitutional values, thus known as the "Protector of the Constitution".
- Structure: Single integrated system led by the Supreme Court.
- Supreme Court: Established Jan 28, 1950, in New Delhi. Judges retire at 65. Parliament can remove judges. Chief Justice and judges take oath/submit resignation to the President. Supreme interpreter of the Constitution and guardian of fundamental rights.
- Powers of SC:
- Original Jurisdiction: Resolves matters exclusively by SC (e.g., Centre-State Disputes).
- Appellate Jurisdiction: Highest appellate court, hears appeals against lower court judgments.
- Advisory Jurisdiction: Gives legal advice to the President upon request.
- Writ Jurisdiction: Issues special orders (writs) to protect fundamental rights.
- Judicial Review: Power to examine the constitutionality of any law or executive order, declaring it unconstitutional if inconsistent with the Constitution.
Limitations: While the Constitution provides for a robust system, the effectiveness depends on various factors including the implementation of its provisions. The "quasi-federal" nature implies a strong centre, which can be seen as a limitation on state autonomy by some perspectives. The process of constitutional amendment can be complex.
Cause & Effect (Chapter 4 Summary): The desire to overcome the undemocratic and unjust measures of British rule caused the drafting of a constitution rooted in principles of democracy and welfare. The need to accommodate India's vast diversity and preserve unity caused the adoption of a federal system. The concern for preventing power concentration caused the establishment of separation of powers among government branches.
Population & Demography
- Population: The total number of people residing in an area. Rapid growth can lead to problems like poverty, unemployment, and malnutrition. India is the most populous country (142.86 crore in 2023, UNFPA).
- Demography: The scientific study of population structure, dynamics, and development, including birth and death rates, migration, and population density.
- Branches:
- Social Demography: Investigates population structure and changes, causes, and consequences, emphasizing socio-economic and political patterns.
- Formal Demography: Measures and analyses factors of population change, e.g., census.
- Census: Systematic data collection of people, usually conducted once every ten years in India, led by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner.
Indicators of Demography
- Migration: The permanent or temporary settlement of people from one region to another.
- Types: International Migration (across country borders, e.g., India to Gulf countries); Internal Migration (within a country's border, e.g., people moving between Indian states).
- Reasons: Better income, higher social status, employment, education, higher standard of living.
- Effects: Changes population structure and can lead to socio-economic and cultural shifts.
- Birth Rate: The number of live births per thousand of the population in a year.
- Death Rate: The number of deaths per thousand of the population in a year.
- Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of infants dying within one year out of 1000 live births.
- Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): Number of women dying during childbirth per thousand births. High IMR and MMR indicate backwardness and poverty.
- Population Growth: Calculated as the difference between birth and death rates. Growth slows when birth rate is low and death rate is high; increases when birth rate exceeds death rate.
- Population Density: The total number of people residing per square kilometer. Delhi has the highest, and Arunachal Pradesh has the lowest density (2011 Census).
- Problems in Densely Populated Areas: Lack of open spaces, pollution, water shortage, crowding.
- Sex Ratio: The number of females per thousand males in the population.
- Child Sex Ratio: The number of females per thousand males in the age group 0-6 years.
- Cause for Decline: Can be due to factors like female foeticide, preferential attitude towards boys, and inadequate healthcare for girls.
- Social Problems from Decreasing Ratio: Leads to societal imbalances.
- Solutions: NITI Aayog recommends raising awareness on girls' rights, providing better healthcare and education for girls, and empowering women.
- Life Expectancy: An estimate of how long a person lives on average, determined by death rates of each age group.
- Kerala's High Life Expectancy: Attributed to high literacy rate, higher education, decentralised public health policy, cleanliness, food availability, and public distribution. Kerala formulated a 'State Old Age Policy' in 2013 due to increasing elderly population.
- Age Structure: The proportion of persons in different age groups (Children 0-14, Young 15-59, Elderly Above 60).
- Factors Affecting: Birth/death rates, healthcare, diseases, life expectancy.
- Ageing Population: When the ratio of older age groups is higher than younger ones.
- India's Structure (2011): High proportion of young population, low elderly. This provides a potential workforce for economic growth, requiring emphasis on education and healthcare for youth, and social security for the elderly.
- Dependency Ratio: Compares the dependent population (below 15 and above 64) to the working population (15-64).
- High Dependency Ratio: Means a larger burden on the employable population.
- Low Dependency Ratio (Demographic Gift/Dividend): Occurs when the number of employed people is more than the unemployed among the working age population, leading to economic progress. This is not stable as the employed population ages.
National Population Policy 2000
Aims to streamline population by 2045 to strengthen sustainable economic growth, social progress, and environmental protection. India was the first developing country to introduce a government-sponsored family planning programme in 1952.
Cause & Effect (Chapter 5 Summary): Population trends are influenced by birth rates, death rates, and migration. These demographic factors, in turn, have profound effects on socio-economic progress, resource allocation, and sustainable development. Policies like the National Population Policy aim to manage these trends for future stability and growth.
Social Life (Chapter 3)