STD 9: SS 2 Chapter Summary
Social Science II - Chapter Concepts
Chapter 1: On the Roof of the World (The Northern Mountain Region)
Objective
To understand the unique geographical features and the entwined human life of the Northern Mountain Region, as one of India's physiographic divisions.
Key Concepts
Formation of Northern Mountains
- Fold Mountains: Relatively young and lofty mountains formed by the folding of rock layers due to compression.
- Plate Tectonics: Formed due to the convergent boundary interaction of the Indian Plate (which moved northwards) and the Eurasian Plate, causing the upliftment of the Tethys seabed. This process is ongoing, so the Himalayas are still growing.
Extent
Extends nearly 2400 km from the River Indus (west) to the River Brahmaputra (east), with a width of 150 to 400 km. Includes high peaks, glaciers, and valleys. Originate from the Pamir Knot ('the Roof of the World').
Classification based on Topography
- Trans Himalayas (Tibetan Himalayas): Northernmost division, average elevation 3000m. Includes the Karakoram range, which connects to the Pamir Knot.
- The Himalayas: Three parallel ranges:
- Himadri (Greater Himalayas / Inner Himalayas): Highest range, average elevation 6100m, snow-clad, contains most of the world's highest peaks.
- Himachal (Lesser Himalayas): Middle range, average elevation 3500-4500m.
- Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas): Southernmost, borders the Ganga Plains.
- Eastern Hills (Purvachal Hills): Hills of lesser elevation (500-3000m) running north-south from Arunachal Pradesh to Mizoram. Important hills include Patkaibum, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills, and Manipur Hills. This region, including Cherrapunjii and Mawsynram, receives the highest rainfall in the world.
Regional Divisions of Himalayas (based on cross-cutting rivers)
- Western Himalayas (Indus to Kali River): Sub-divided into Kashmir, Himachal, and Uttarakhand Himalayas.
- Kashmir Himalaya: Known for snow-covered peaks (e.g., Mount K2 - Godwin Austin), glaciers (Siachen, Boltoro), lakes (Dal Lake), and 'Margs' (alpine meadows like Sonmarg, Gulmarg) used for winter sports. Rivers like Indus, Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab are perennial due to glaciers.
- Himachal Himalaya: Rivers like Chenab, Ravi, Beas; lakes (Chandratal); and famous valleys (Kulu, Kangra) and tourist centers (Shimla, Manali). Hot springs are also present.
- Uttarakhand Himalaya: Contains high peaks (Nandadevi, Badrinath), glaciers (Gangotri, Yamunotri), lakes (Nainital), and 'Bugyals' (alpine summer meadows), where transhumance (seasonal migration of shepherds) occurs. Flat valleys called 'Duns' (e.g., Dehradun) are found between Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks.
- Central Himalayas (Kali to Teesta River): Mostly in Nepal (Nepal Himalaya). In India, includes Western Sikkim and Darjeeling region. Mount Kanchenjunga and Nathula Pass are located here. Known for Darjeeling tea cultivation.
- Eastern Himalayas (Teesta to Brahmaputra River): Also called Assam Himalayas. Rivers like Brahmaputra, Lohit; passes like Bomdila and Diphu.
Climate
The Himalayas create a climatic divide between the Indian Subcontinent and Central Asia. Climate varies with elevation: mild in lower slopes, extreme cold in high altitudes (Ladakh). Receives Southwest Monsoon rains, especially heavy in North Eastern India (Meghalaya Plateau) due to trapped winds.
Drainage System
Formed by Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries. They are perennial (water-rich) due to rain and snow-melt. Create landforms like V-shaped valleys, gorges, and waterfalls.
Soil
Predominantly mountain and forest soil. Valleys have fine-grained, humus-rich soil (e.g., Karewas in Kashmir Valley, ideal for saffron). High slopes have coarse soil.
Natural Vegetation
Varies with altitude and rainfall.
- Tropical evergreen in Eastern Himalayas (high rainfall >200cm).
- Semi-evergreen and deciduous forests in valleys/lower slopes.
- Moist deciduous (1000-2000m), Coniferous (pine, deodar) higher up.
- Shrubs (junipers, rhododendrons) at higher altitudes, alpine meadows at highest altitudes.
Wildlife
Habitat for diverse animals like yak, musk deer, one-horned rhinoceros, and snow leopard. Conservation efforts include National Parks and Biosphere Reserves.
Human Life & Economy
- Agriculture: Sparse due to terrain. Farmers use terrace farming for crops like paddy, legumes, potatoes. Tea is a major crop in Eastern Himalayas. Shifting cultivation by tribal populations in North Eastern Hills.
- Animal Rearing: Main occupation. Different animals (goat, cattle, sheep, horse, yak) reared based on elevation. Gujjars are shepherd tribes.
- Tourism: High economic potential. Pilgrimage (Kailas, Amarnath) for centuries. British developed resort towns (Shimla, Darjeeling). Modern adventure tourism (mountaineering, paragliding, skiing) has grown significantly.
Chapter 2: In the Expansive Plain (The North Indian Plain)
Objective
To understand the formation, physiographic divisions, climate, natural vegetation, soil types, and human life in the vast Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain, highlighting its role in India's economy and cultural diversity.
Key Concepts
Formation
An extensive alluvial plain formed by the continuous deposition of sediments carried by rivers. A vast depression south of the Himalayas (formed after Himalayan uplift) filled with alluvium from Himalayan and Peninsular rivers over millions of years. Average depth of alluvial deposits: 1000-2000m.
Geomorphic Processes
External forces (running water, wind, glaciers) acting on Earth's surface cause disintegration of rocks, transportation of sediments, and their deposition in low-lying areas.
Extent
Approximately 3200 km from Indus mouth to Ganga mouth, spreading over 2400 km in India. Width varies from 150 km to 300 km. Area: 7 lakh sq.km. Borders: Shiwaliks (north), Peninsular Plateau (south).
Suitability for Agriculture
Characterised by fertile soil, adequate water supply, favourable climate, and flat topography.
Regional Divisions (based on river systems, flow, topography)
- Rajasthan Plain: Westernmost, includes the Thar Desert (Marusthali, Rajasthan Bagar). West of the Aravali range. River Luni (non-perennial) and numerous salt lakes (Sambhar) are characteristic.
- Punjab-Haryana Plain: East/northeast of Rajasthan Plain, extends to Yamuna River. Formed by deposition from Satluj, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas (known as the Land of Five Rivers - Punjab). Divided into five major doabs (land between two converging rivers).
- Ganga Plain: East of Punjab-Haryana Plain, stretches from Bangladesh to Yamuna River. Formed by Ganga and its tributaries. Average elevation 200m, slopes east/southeast. Sub-divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Ganga Plain.
- Brahmaputra Plain (Assam Valley): Easternmost part, mainly in Assam. Formed by Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Rich in alluvial fans (fan-shaped sediment deposits where rivers enter plains from mountains). Features braided rivers, meanders, and ox-bow lakes (isolated curved water bodies formed from river meanders).
Geomorphic Zones (North to South)
- Bhabar: Narrow belt (8-10km) parallel to Shiwalik foothills, formed by rocks and boulders where rivers disappear beneath.
- Tarai: Marshy and swampy tract (10-20km) parallel to Bhabar, where rivers re-emerge. Has luxurious natural vegetation and wildlife.
- Alluvial Plains: South of Tarai, consists of:
- Bhangar: Older alluvial deposits.
- Khadar: Newer alluvial deposits, ideal for agriculture.
- Depositional Landforms: Include riverine islands, sandbars, flood plains (fertile areas formed by alluvium during floods), and deltas (triangular landforms at river mouths formed by sediment deposition between distributaries, e.g., Sundarbans).
Climate
Characterised by continental climate due to distance from oceans.
- Cold Weather Season (Mid-Nov to Jan): Excessive cold due to distance from oceans, snowfall in Himalayas, cold winds from West Asia, and apparent southward movement of the sun. Receives slight rainfall.
- Hot Weather Season (April-June): Extremely severe summer with temperatures up to 48°C in western parts. 'Loo' (hot, dry, oppressive wind from Rajasthan). Dust storms bring light relief.
- Southwest Monsoon Season (June-Sept): Main rainy season. Low-pressure area over NIP attracts two branches of monsoon winds (Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal). Bay of Bengal branch bifurcates, causing widespread rains in Brahmaputra Plain and Ganga Plain. Rajasthan receives scanty rainfall.
- Northeast Monsoon Season (Retreating Monsoon): Generally dry climate in NIP as winds blow from northeast. Characterised by 'October heat' due to high temperature and atmospheric humidity.
Natural Vegetation
Diversity influenced by topography, climate, soil.
- Tropical Deciduous Forests: Most prominent, divided into:
- Dry Deciduous Forests: In regions with 70-100cm annual rainfall, trees shed leaves in dry season (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar plains).
- Moist Deciduous Forests: In areas with 100-200cm rainfall, found along Shiwalik range and parts of Odisha/West Bengal (e.g., Teak, Sal).
- Tropical Thorn Forests: Prevalent in semi-arid areas (southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh) with low rainfall, consisting of grasses and shrubs.
- Swamp Forests: Found in saline/marshy areas like the Sundarbans delta (West Bengal), dominated by mangroves (e.g., Sundri trees) and habitat for Royal Bengal Tiger.
Major Soil Types
- Alluvial Soil: Widespread and most important, varies from sandy loam to clay. Ideal for agriculture. Includes Bhangar (older) and Khadar (newer).
- Red Soil: Found in southern Middle Ganga Plain, red due to iron content.
- Saline Soil: In Sundarbans delta, high salt content from seawater intrusion. Alluvial soil can turn saline with excessive irrigation.
- Peat Soil: Along coastal regions of West Bengal.
- Arid Soil: Extensively found in western parts (Rajasthan), sandy and saline, requires irrigation.
Human Life & Economy
- Population Density: Home to more than half of India's total population despite being less than one-fourth of the country's area.
- Agriculture: Backbone of India's agriculture-based economy. Known as the "granary of India" due to extensive cultivation supported by irrigation. Major crops include wheat, rice, jute, and sugarcane.
- Cropping Seasons: Kharif (June-Sept, tropical crops like rice, cotton), Rabi (Oct-March, temperate crops like wheat, gram), and Zaid (April-June, vegetables, fruits).
- Infrastructure: Well-developed road and railway network (except Thar Desert) facilitated industrialisation and urbanisation.
Significance
Plays a significant role in shaping India's cultural diversity, ensuring food security, and facilitating cultural diffusion due to excellent transportation and communication networks.
Chapter 3: Plateau where the Earth’s History Slumbers (The Peninsular Plateau)
Objective
To provide a detailed overview of the Peninsular Plateau, India's largest physical division, including its physical diversities, resource base, and influence on human life.
Key Concepts
General Features
An almost triangular-shaped physiographic unit. Average altitude 600-900m. One of the oldest landforms in the world. Features extensive tablelands, bordering mountain ranges, shallow river valleys, and diverse flora/fauna.
Location & Extent
Lies south of the North Indian Plain. Bordered by the Western Ghats (west) and Eastern Ghats (east). Covers over 16 lakh sq.km.
Types of Plateaus
Intermontane, Piedmont, and Continental Plateaus.
Classification based on Location
- Deccan Plateau:
- Extent: Extensive plateau south of the Satpura ranges, between Western and Eastern Ghats. Northern boundary formed by Satpura, Maikala, and Mahadeo Hills. 'Deccan' from Sanskrit 'Dakshin' (South).
- Geology: Composed of crystalline rocks like basalt, granite, and gneiss, formed from lava flows millions of years ago. The northwestern part is the Deccan Trap, made of basalt lava rocks.
- Soil: Characterised by black soil (Regur soil), formed from basalt weathering. It is highly fertile, has high water-retaining capacity, and is good for cotton cultivation (also called black cotton soil). Rich in lime, iron, magnesium, and aluminium.
- Western Ghats (Sahyadris): Forms the western edge of the Deccan Plateau. Extends about 1600 km from Kanyakumari to Gujarat. Height increases from north to south. Anamudi (2695m) in Anamalai is the highest peak in Peninsular India. Other names: Anamalai, Elamalai (Kerala), Nilgiris (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu), Sahyadris (Maharashtra). Source of most peninsular rivers.
- Eastern Ghats: Comparatively lower in height than Western Ghats. Extends about 800 km from Mahanadi banks to Nilgiris. Cut across by east-flowing peninsular rivers. The Western and Eastern Ghats join at the Nilgiri Hills.
- Central Highlands:
- Extent: Extensive plateau region north of Satpura ranges. Includes the Malwa Plateau.
- Aravali Mountains: Form the western margin of Malwa Plateau, an example of old fold mountains or residual mountains. Mount Abu is a major hill station and the highest peak in Malwa Plateau.
- Chota Nagpur Plateau: Eastern part of Central Highlands, situated south of Rajmahal Hills. Known as the richest storehouse of minerals. Rich in metallic (iron ore, bauxite, manganese, copper) and non-metallic minerals (limestone, coal). Major economic activities are mining and mineral-based industries.
- Nilgiris: Meeting point of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala. Known for hill stations (Ooty - Queen of Hills), tea plantations, and rich biodiversity, being the first Biosphere Reserve in India.
Climatic Diversity
- General Climate: Tropical monsoon climate, but with considerable variation in temperature and rainfall. Factors include tropical location, peninsula shape, distance from ocean, mountain orientation, and monsoon direction.
- Temperature: Average summer temperature above 30°C. Deccan Plateau reaches 38°C in March. Higher elevations in Western Ghats have lower temperatures. High diurnal range of temperature (difference between max and min daily temperature) in the interiors.
- Rainfall: Moderate or scanty throughout, except western slopes of Western Ghats.
- Southwest Monsoon: Causes heavy rainfall (250-400cm) along the windward (western) slopes of the Western Ghats. The eastern slopes and plateau regions close to them are rain shadow regions, receiving very little rainfall (less than 50cm) as descending air is dry.
- Northeast Monsoon: Generally dry climate in the Peninsular Plateau. Though low-pressure whirls over Bay of Bengal cause heavy showers on the east coast (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh), the plateau largely remains unaffected.
Peninsular Rivers
- General Flow: General slope is from west to east. The Western Ghats act as the major water divide.
- East-flowing Rivers: Most originate from the Western Ghats and flow into the Bay of Bengal. Examples: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri.
- Godavari: The largest peninsular river, also called Dakshin Ganga.
- Kaveri: Known as perennial due to receiving rains from both southwest and northeast monsoons. Subject of a long-standing inter-state water dispute.
- West-flowing Rivers: Most flow swiftly into the Arabian Sea. Exceptions: Narmada and Tapti, which originate from the Central Highlands and flow westward. The Sardar Sarovar Multipurpose River Valley Project is on the Narmada. The Narmada Bachao Andolan protested large dam construction on Narmada.
- North-flowing Rivers: Some rivers like Chambal, Betwa, Son, and Ken originate from the Malwa Plateau and join Yamuna or Ganga.
- Characteristics: Generally seasonal in flow (decreases in summer, overflows in monsoons). Generally not navigable due to uneven terrain.
- Multipurpose River Valley Projects: Dams built across rivers for flood control, irrigation, power generation, inland transport, fishing, and tourism (e.g., Hirakud, Thungabhadra).
- Chambal Ravines: Unique badland topography formed by continuous erosion by Chambal River and its tributaries.
Natural Vegetation
In accordance with physiography and climate.
- Tropical Deciduous Forests: Most widespread, divided into moist (100-200cm rainfall, e.g., Teak, Sal, in Eastern W. Ghats slopes, MP, Chattisgarh) and dry (70-100cm rainfall, shed leaves in drought, e.g., Teak, Rosewood).
- Tropical Thorn Forests: In high temperature, low rainfall (<75cm) regions (e.g., semi-arid Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh).
- Southern Montane Forests: Along higher reaches (Western Ghats, Nilgiris); temperate above 1500m, sub-tropical below. Shola forests (sub-tropical vegetation along Nilgiris, Palani, Anamalai) are distinctive.
Soil Types
Mostly in-situ soils (formed where they rest).
- Black Soil: Formed from basalt weathering in NW Deccan Trap; fertile, good for cotton.
- Red Soil: From weathering of old crystalline metamorphic rocks, red due to iron.
- Laterite Soil: Formed by leaching of minerals in areas with alternating heavy rain and drought; less fertile but used for plantation crops (tea, coffee, rubber).
- Mountain Soil: Along Western and Eastern Ghats, suitable for plantation crops.
Agriculture
Generally less suitable than plains due to undulating topography, thin topsoil, exposed rocks.
- Crops: Rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, tobacco. Plantation crops dominate in Western Ghats (tea, coffee, spices).
- Coffee: Karnataka is the leading producer, followed by Kerala. Introduced by Bababudan in 17th century.
- Tea: Plantations in Nilgiri Hills and Western Ghats (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala); labour-intensive.
- Sugarcane: Favorable conditions in Deccan Plateau (black lava soil, tropical climate, high sucrose).
- Cotton: Thrives in black soil of Deccan-Malwa Plateau; Gujarat and Maharashtra are leading producers.
Mineral Resources
Rich in minerals, largely concentrated in crystalline rock layers and hilly tracts. Chota Nagpur Plateau is the "heartland of minerals" and the richest belt. Divided into Northeastern, Central, Southern, Southwestern, and Northwestern mineral regions.
Human Life
Moderately populated. Early settlements were limited by terrain/climate. Later, mining activities, road/rail networks, mineral-based industries, and commercial agriculture led to increased population and growth of urban centers.
Chapter 4: Human Resources for National Development
Objective
To provide sufficient knowledge about wealth generation and distribution, human resource development, its challenges, and economic perspectives, essential for responsible citizenship.
Key Concepts
Factors of Production (Economic Resources)
Essential for production of any product.
- Land: Natural resources like soil and water. Reward: Rent.
- Labour: Intellectual or physical efforts for reward. Reward: Wages. Considered the most important factor, providing the main source of income for most people.
- Capital: Man-made resources aiding production (machines, equipment). Reward: Interest.
- Entrepreneurship/Organisation: Combining other factors to enable production. Reward: Profit.
Exchange Systems
- Barter System: Exchange of goods for goods. Limitations: Difficulty in determining price, lack of a common medium of exchange.
- Evolution of Money: From animal skins, agricultural products, cattle to metals, coins, paper money, and modern forms like plastic cards and electronic money. Money became the basic unit for pricing products and factors of production.
Human Resources
- Definition: People who can work and contribute to the production process. They convert natural resources into products using physical power and intelligence.
- Productivity: The ability of each factor of production to produce goods and services. The quality of the population, not just its size, determines human resources.
- Labour Force: Population of 15 years of age and above who are willing and able to work. A high number in this age group positively influences income and economic growth.
Human Capital
- Definition: The economic value of human resources. Individuals become human capital through education and job training.
- Human Capital Formation: Additions made over time to the stock of human capital. Can be increased by ensuring higher education, proper training, and healthcare.
- Factors Influencing Human Capital Formation:
- Education: Enables effective use of modern technology, better jobs, higher income, and a high standard of living. Leads to increased ability, technological knowledge, skill development, better jobs, income, quality of life, and national development. Requires massive investment across public, cooperative, and private sectors.
- Knowledge Economy: An economic system that integrates intelligence, innovative technological ideas, and information technology in economic activities, aiming for intellectual products and capital. Scientists, researchers, policymakers, software developers strengthen this sector.
- Health: Defined by WHO as a state of physical, mental, and social well-being. Poor health decreases productivity and slows production. Essential for individual and national development. Measures include preventive medicine, immunization, nutritious food, clean water, sanitation, and recreation. Government investments in healthcare strengthen human capital. Kerala is a model in healthcare.
- Job Training: Provides professional skills, increases productivity, and contributes to peak human capital formation.
- Migration: Permanent or temporary movement of people between regions. Causes social, economic, and cultural changes. Government bears expenditure for basic needs to foster human capital formation in affected regions.
- Access to Information: Essential for people to gather information about services in education, health, and employment, thereby fostering human capital formation.
Challenges faced by Human Capital Formation
- Poverty: The state of not being able to meet basic needs. A vicious cycle where low income leads to inability to access education/health, causing low productivity and perpetuating poverty. Governments implement schemes to alleviate poverty (e.g., Kerala's model).
- Unemployment: A condition where a healthy, capable person willing to work at prevailing wages cannot find employment. Hinders maximum utilisation of human resources.
- Types: Open unemployment (willing to work but unemployed), Structural unemployment (job loss due to new technology), Seasonal unemployment (employed only in specific seasons), Disguised unemployment (more labourers employed than required without increasing output).
Conclusion
Human capital formation is crucial for a country's economic power. Governments must prioritise education, health, migration, job training, and information access to effectively utilise human resources and achieve national progress through suitable programmes and planning.
Multiple Choice Questions (5 Marks)
1. The Himalayas were formed due to the convergent boundary interaction of which two plates?
2. Which of the following is the highest peak in Peninsular India?
3. The northwestern part of the Deccan Plateau is characterized by which soil type, known for cotton cultivation?
4. What is the economic value of human resources, enhanced through education and job training?
5. Which regional division of the North Indian Plain is known for the Thar Desert and salt lakes like Sambhar?
Answer Key - MCQs
1. C (Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate)
2. B (Anamudi)
3. C (Black Soil (Regur soil))
4. B (Human Capital)
5. D (Rajasthan Plain)
Three-Mark Questions (5 Marks)
1. Define Fold Mountains and explain how the Himalayas were formed according to plate tectonics.
2. List three characteristics that make the North Indian Plain suitable for agriculture.
3. What are the main characteristics of Peninsular Rivers?
4. What is Human Capital Formation, and how can it be increased?
5. Name and briefly describe any two types of unemployment mentioned in the text.
Answer Key - Three-Mark Questions
1. Define Fold Mountains and explain how the Himalayas were formed according to plate tectonics.
Fold Mountains are relatively young and lofty mountains formed by the folding of rock layers due to compression. The Himalayas were formed due to the convergent boundary interaction of the Indian Plate (which moved northwards) and the Eurasian Plate, causing the upliftment of the Tethys seabed. This process is ongoing, so the Himalayas are still growing.
2. List three characteristics that make the North Indian Plain suitable for agriculture.
The North Indian Plain is suitable for agriculture due to:
- Fertile soil (alluvial deposits).
- Adequate water supply from perennial rivers.
- Favourable climate.
- Flat topography, which aids cultivation and irrigation.
3. What are the main characteristics of Peninsular Rivers?
The main characteristics of Peninsular Rivers are:
- Their general slope is from west to east, with most flowing into the Bay of Bengal, except Narmada and Tapti which flow west into the Arabian Sea.
- They are generally seasonal in flow, decreasing significantly in summer and overflowing during monsoons.
- They are generally not navigable due to uneven terrain and seasonal flow.
- The Western Ghats act as the major water divide for these rivers.
4. What is Human Capital Formation, and how can it be increased?
Human Capital Formation refers to additions made over time to the stock of human capital, which is the economic value of human resources. It can be increased by ensuring higher education, proper training, and healthcare.
5. Name and briefly describe any two types of unemployment mentioned in the text.
Two types of unemployment are:
- Open unemployment: A condition where a healthy, capable person willing to work at prevailing wages cannot find employment.
- Structural unemployment: Job loss that occurs due to changes in technology or economic structure, making existing skills obsolete.
- Seasonal unemployment: Employment that only occurs during specific seasons of the year, leaving people unemployed for the rest of the year.
- Disguised unemployment: A situation where more labourers are employed than are actually required for a given output, meaning some workers' contribution to output is effectively zero.
Five-Mark Questions (5 Marks)
1. Describe the regional divisions of the Himalayas based on cross-cutting rivers, mentioning key features of each subdivision.
2. Explain the formation of the North Indian Plain and detail its major geomorphic zones from north to south.
3. Differentiate between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats based on their extent, height, and characteristics.
4. Discuss the importance of Education and Health as factors influencing Human Capital Formation.
5. Describe the climatic diversity of the Peninsular Plateau, specifically explaining how Southwest and Northeast Monsoons influence its rainfall patterns.
Answer Key - Five-Mark Questions
1. Describe the regional divisions of the Himalayas based on cross-cutting rivers, mentioning key features of each subdivision.
The regional divisions of the Himalayas based on cross-cutting rivers are:
- Western Himalayas (Indus to Kali River): This division is sub-divided into Kashmir, Himachal, and Uttarakhand Himalayas.
- Kashmir Himalaya: Known for snow-covered peaks (like Mount K2 - Godwin Austin), large glaciers (Siachen, Boltoro), famous lakes (Dal Lake), and alpine meadows called 'Margs' (e.g., Sonmarg, Gulmarg) used for winter sports. Perennial rivers like Indus, Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab flow through it.
- Himachal Himalaya: Characterized by rivers like Chenab, Ravi, Beas, lakes (Chandratal), and famous valleys (Kulu, Kangra), which are popular tourist centers (Shimla, Manali). Hot springs are also present.
- Uttarakhand Himalaya: Features high peaks (Nandadevi, Badrinath), glaciers (Gangotri, Yamunotri), lakes (Nainital), and alpine summer meadows known as 'Bugyals', where transhumance (seasonal migration of shepherds) occurs. Flat valleys called 'Duns' (e.g., Dehradun) are found here between the Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks.
- Central Himalayas (Kali to Teesta River): This part is mostly in Nepal, known as Nepal Himalaya. In India, it includes Western Sikkim and the Darjeeling region. Mount Kanchenjunga, one of the world's highest peaks, and Nathula Pass are located here. This region is famous for Darjeeling tea cultivation.
- Eastern Himalayas (Teesta to Brahmaputra River): Also called Assam Himalayas. Major rivers include Brahmaputra and Lohit. Important passes like Bomdila and Diphu are found here.
2. Explain the formation of the North Indian Plain and detail its major geomorphic zones from north to south.
Formation: The North Indian Plain is an extensive alluvial plain formed by the continuous deposition of sediments carried by rivers. After the uplift of the Himalayas, a vast depression formed to their south. Over millions of years, this depression was filled with alluvium (sediments) brought down by the Himalayan rivers (like Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra) and some Peninsular rivers. The average depth of these alluvial deposits is 1000-2000m.
Geomorphic Zones (North to South):
- Bhabar: This is a narrow belt (8-10km wide) located parallel to the Shiwalik foothills. It is formed by the deposition of rocks and boulders by rivers, where the rivers often disappear beneath the porous deposits.
- Tarai: Situated parallel to the Bhabar belt, this is a marshy and swampy tract (10-20km wide) where the rivers that disappeared in the Bhabar re-emerge. It is characterized by luxurious natural vegetation and diverse wildlife.
- Alluvial Plains: South of the Tarai, this vast plain consists of older and newer alluvial deposits:
- Bhangar: Represents the older alluvial deposits, forming higher terraces above the flood plains.
- Khadar: Consists of newer, younger alluvial deposits, typically found in the flood plains, making it highly fertile and ideal for intensive agriculture.
- Depositional Landforms: Within these alluvial plains, various landforms are created by river deposition, including riverine islands, sandbars, fertile flood plains (formed by alluvium during floods), and deltas (triangular landforms at river mouths formed by sediment deposition between distributaries, such as the Sundarbans).
3. Differentiate between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats based on their extent, height, and characteristics.
| Feature | Western Ghats (Sahyadris) | Eastern Ghats |
|---------------------|---------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------| | Extent | Extends about 1600 km from Kanyakumari to Gujarat. Forms the western edge of the Deccan Plateau. | Extends about 800 km from Mahanadi banks to Nilgiris. Forms the eastern edge of the Deccan Plateau. | | Continuity | Continuous chain of mountains. Can only be crossed through passes (e.g., Palghat, Bhor Ghat). | Discontinuous and irregular, cut across by east-flowing peninsular rivers. | | Height | Comparatively higher, with average elevation of 900-1600m. Height increases from north to south. Anamudi (2695m) is the highest peak in Peninsular India. | Comparatively lower than Western Ghats, with average elevation of 600-900m. Mahendragiri (approx. 1501m) is a notable peak. | | Formation | Block mountains, likely formed due to the faulting and subsidence of the Arabian Sea floor. | Older relict mountains, extensively eroded by rivers. | | Rainfall | Receive heavy rainfall (250-400cm) on their windward (western) slopes from the Southwest Monsoon. | Lie in the rain shadow region of the Southwest Monsoon, receiving very little rainfall (less than 50cm). | | Rivers | Source of most major peninsular rivers (Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) that flow eastward. | Cut across by east-flowing rivers (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) as they make their way to the Bay of Bengal. | | Meeting Point | Join the Eastern Ghats at the Nilgiri Hills. | Join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri Hills. |4. Discuss the importance of Education and Health as factors influencing Human Capital Formation.
Human Capital Formation involves additions made over time to the stock of human capital, which is the economic value of human resources. Education and Health are two crucial factors influencing this process:
- Education:
- Skill and Knowledge Development: Education provides individuals with essential knowledge, analytical skills, and vocational training, making them more productive and adaptable to modern technology.
- Better Employment and Income: An educated workforce is more likely to secure better jobs, leading to higher incomes and an improved standard of living. This, in turn, contributes to a higher quality of life.
- National Development: Education fosters innovation, research, and technological advancement, which are vital for a nation's economic growth and overall development. It transforms a population into a valuable asset.
- Foundation for Knowledge Economy: Education is the bedrock of a 'Knowledge Economy,' where intellectual products and innovative ideas drive economic activities.
- Investment: Massive investment in education across public, cooperative, and private sectors is crucial to build a strong human capital base.
- Health:
- Productivity and Efficiency: A healthy population is a productive one. Poor health can lead to decreased work capacity, frequent absenteeism, and reduced overall productivity, slowing down economic output.
- Quality of Life: Good health, defined by WHO as a state of physical, mental, and social well-being, is fundamental for an individual's quality of life and their ability to participate fully in economic and social activities.
- National Development: A healthy workforce contributes consistently to production and innovation. Investments in healthcare, including preventive medicine, immunization, nutritious food, clean water, and sanitation, are essential government measures to strengthen human capital and foster national development.
- Economic Burden Reduction: Good health reduces the burden of disease, healthcare costs, and the loss of economic output due to illness.
5. Describe the climatic diversity of the Peninsular Plateau, specifically explaining how Southwest and Northeast Monsoons influence its rainfall patterns.
The Peninsular Plateau experiences a tropical monsoon climate with considerable variation in temperature and rainfall, influenced by its tropical location, peninsular shape, distance from the ocean, mountain orientation, and monsoon directions.
- Temperature:
- Average summer temperatures are generally above 30°C, with the Deccan Plateau reaching up to 38°C in March.
- Higher elevations in the Western Ghats experience comparatively lower temperatures.
- Interior parts of the plateau show a high diurnal range of temperature (significant difference between day and night temperatures) due to their continental effect.
- Rainfall: Rainfall is generally moderate or scanty throughout the plateau, with significant variations due to the influence of monsoons:
- Southwest Monsoon Season (June-September):
- The Western Ghats act as a significant barrier to the moisture-laden Southwest Monsoon winds. Consequently, their windward (western) slopes receive heavy rainfall, ranging from 250-400cm. This makes regions along the Konkan Coast and parts of Kerala and Karnataka very wet.
- In contrast, the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats and the plateau regions immediately to their east (e.g., parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh) fall under a rain shadow region. As the monsoon winds descend on these leeward sides, they become dry, resulting in very little rainfall (often less than 50cm).
- The rest of the plateau receives moderate rainfall as the monsoon winds proceed inland.
- Northeast Monsoon Season (October-December):
- Generally, the Peninsular Plateau experiences a dry climate during the Northeast Monsoon season as these winds blow from land to sea.
- However, low-pressure whirls originating over the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture and cause heavy showers on the east coast, particularly in Tamil Nadu and coastal Andhra Pradesh. Despite this, the Peninsular Plateau largely remains unaffected by these rains, maintaining its dry conditions during this period.
- This season is also characterized by 'October heat' in parts of the plateau due to high temperatures and atmospheric humidity.
- Southwest Monsoon Season (June-September):
